Termbases
The character bian (辩) denotes debate. The Warring States Period witnessed the contentions of the Hundred Schools of Thought. On this philosophical battlefield, theorists from rival schools participated in debates over numerous subjects or theses and overtime they began to consider debate as a philosophical subject. Some thinkers, especially the later Mohist scholars and Xunzi (313?-238 BC), discussed the significance, principles, and methods of debate. Some others, however, treated it critically or with reservation. Mencius (372?-289BC), for one, said he would resort to debate only when he had no other choice. The Daoists, for another, spoke out against debate.
DETAILED>>This refers to a person’s ability and attributes. To be specific, it has two meanings. First, it refers to a person’s ability to respond to and handle things. In this regard, such ability differs from person to person. A person may or may not have talent. There are people who have many talents, and there are also those who have one special talent. Second, it refers to one’s attributes one is born with. Attributes of a well-rounded person are close or even equal to that of a person with perfect human nature. People differ in views on whether talent is good or evil, just like their views on human nature.
DETAILED>>It refers to the constant nature or regular pattern of natural laws. The ancient Chinese believed that phenomena in the universe and life in human society are governed by constant laws in their movement. People characterize these laws as being "constant" and sometimes call them "constant ways" or "constant principles." "Constant" is in contrast to "change," but it is also closely connected with "change." Given that these are the natural laws or patterns that phenomena follow, they are stable and unchangeable. But these constant natural laws are manifested through myriad changing things. It is by learning about continuous changes that people seek to identify and comprehend underlying constant laws or principles.
DETAILED>>Cheng (成), meaning “grow” or “consummate” as a verb, describes the gradual growth of things towards consummation. All things possess innate qualities and abilities from their birth or generation. However, for such creatures as humans, birds, beasts, and plants, these qualities and abilities need to be continually developed during their existence, so that they can approach or achieve consummation. In ancient times, some philosophers laid emphasis on individual growth, while others stressed the importance of external guidance or instruction for individual growth. Additionally, cheng can also connote “accomplishment” in various fields and career pursuits.
DETAILED>>Sincerity is among the core concepts of the Confucian school of thought. Basically, it means truthfulness without deceit. Confucians believed that sincerity is the essence of the “way of heaven” or “principles of heaven,” a basis on which everything else is built. At the same time, sincerity is also the root and foundation of morality. All moral deeds must be conducted on the basis of sincerity from the bottom of the heart. Otherwise, they are nothing but pretensions. The Doctrine of the Mean maintains, “Nothing can be achieved without sincerity.” Sages are sincere by nature. Therefore, their words and deeds are naturally consistent with the “way of heaven” and the “principles of heaven.” Junzi (a man of virtue) upholds sincerity as his goal for moral attainment and an approach to achieving the “way of heaven” and the “principles of heaven.”
DETAILED>>Cheng (城) is a city with walls surrounding it. The Chinese character for cheng originally referred to inner and outer city walls built of earth, with military defense and flood control functions. Usually, it was surrounded by a moat. In ancient times, the state capital of a monarch, the fief of a prince, and a manor estate granted by a monarch to a minister or a senior official all had a walled settlement as the center, hence the name cheng. The Chinese character for cheng is pronounced the same way as another character meaning accommodating. Here, cheng means having the capacity to accommodate people. The primary function of a cheng is to protect its residents. This is a concrete manifestation of the political notion that people are the foundation of the state.
DETAILED>>This term originally means stupidity, foolishness or madness, and by extension it becomes closely associated with fascination, persistence, weirdness in dealing with people and things. Compared with shrewd, calculating worldly people, people with obsessions tend to be utterly devoted and passionate to the degree of being like fools. They engage in fond love, fond speech and fond behavior, value innocence, true self and individual character, but they seek no fame, wealth or power, and have no fear of worldly judgment. Chi (痴 moha) is also a Buddhist term, which means ignorance or perplexity. It is the benighted state of mind, being unaware of the reality of the world. Buddhism lists ignorance as one of the three poisons, the other two being greed and resentment, from which all (other) evils originate.
DETAILED>>Shame is an important part of moral psychology. Once there are commonly accepted morals and once people find that their own words and deeds violate those morals, they will consciously feel guilt and self-reproach – this is known as “shame.” Confucians considered the development of such a moral psychology to be an important goal of ethics education. In addition to wanting people to abide by external moral norms, they also wanted them to develop an internal awareness of moral behavior, and to achieve moral self-constraint through a sense of shame. This term was later used to judge immoral words and deeds, i.e., shameful.
DETAILED>>The original Chinese character chou (醜) literally means “ghastly-looking like a drunkard.” It can then be extended to refer to people and things which are ugly, bad or despicable. This term contains two meanings. First, as a concept in Chinese thought and culture, it stands in contrast to “beauty,” indicating ugly appearance, as well as the state of being messy, unpolished, unharmonious or unreasonable. “Ugliness” is sometimes used to describe a type of appearance which violates mainstream aesthetic standards and thus is not accepted by the general public. Understanding and accepting the notion of “ugliness” is a breakthrough and extension of the definition of “beauty.” Second, the term also refers to clowns who perform funny-looking and amusing characters in a traditional Chinese opera, with a small patch of white chalk painted around the nose.
DETAILED>>Ci (词) originated in the Tang and the Five Dynasties, and developed to maturity as a new literary form in the Song Dynasty. Also known as “lyric with a melody,” “yuefu (乐府) poetry” or “long and short verses,” ci developed from poetry. Its main feature is that it is set to music and sung. Each piece of ci has a name for its tune. There are strict requirements for the number of lines and the number of characters as well as tone pattern and rhyming in different tunes. In terms of length, ci is divided into short lyrics, medium lyrics, and long lyrics. In terms of musical system, a piece of ci is usually divided into two stanzas of que (阕) or pian (片), as ancient Chinese called them. Occasionally, it consists of three or four stanzas, or just one. Thus, the music can be played once or many times. In terms of style, ci falls into the graceful and restrained school and the bold and unconstrained school. The former is delicate and sentimental, often describing family life and love, while the latter is bold and free, often expressing one’s vision about major social issues like the fate of the nation. Many literati and scholars of the Song Dynasty composed ci lyrics, which played a significant part in promoting its development. Today, ci is generally not set to music and sung. Rather, it is a literary form composed in accordance with the requirements of a music tune.
DETAILED>>Kindness is a virtue espoused by ancient Chinese. While emphasizing the importance of filial piety, the Confucian school also encouraged parental care and love for their children, which was referred to as kindness. Cultivation of one's kindness would enable a ruler to treat his people as his own children when exercising governance. In Daoism, kindness often referred to a ruler's love for his people.
DETAILED>>In its original meaning, dao (道) is the way or path taken by people. It has three extended meanings: 1) the general laws followed by things in different spheres, e.g. the natural order by which the sun, moon and stars move is called the way of heaven; the rules that govern human activities are the way of man; 2) the universal patterns followed by all things and beings; and 3) the original source or ontological existence of things, which transcends form and constitutes the basis for the birth and existence of all things, and for the activities of human beings. In their respective discussions of Dao, Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism imbue it with very different connotations. While benevolence, righteousness, social norms, and music education form the basic content of the Confucian Dao, the Buddhist and Daoist Dao tends to emphasize kong (空 emptiness) and wu (无 void).
DETAILED>>The term has two different meanings. One is an individual’s fine moral character, or his proper conduct in society. At first de (德) was only related to an individual’s behavior, referring to his external moral conduct. Later, it also referred to something that combined external behavior with internal emotions and moral consciousness. The other meaning of de refers to the special laws and features obtained from Dao, or the physical manifestation of the hidden and formless Dao, as well as the internal basis for the origination and existence of all things.
DETAILED>>Ding was a vessel to cook food and was also used as an important ritual object in ancient times. Legend has it that Emperor Yu of the Xia Dynasty had nine dings cast, symbolizing the nine regions in the country. Ding was regarded as embodying the legitimacy and authority of the throne during the three dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou. Ding was mostly cast in bronze, usually with two ears and three or four legs. The three legs stood for the “three chief ministers” (the three most powerful official positions in ancient times in charge of national civil administration, the judiciary, and military affairs). The four legs stood for the four advisors to the emperor. After the Qin Dynasty, ding gradually lost its function as a symbol of royal authority, but the word ding was still used to refer to the royal throne, the monarchy, or state power. It was also given the meaning of “glory,” “grandeur,” and “dignity.”
DETAILED>>The term refers to the city in which a state ruler resided and conducted government affairs. The difference between a du (都) and a yi (邑) was that the former had an ancestral temple to enshrine the memorial tablets of ancestors and previous rulers while the latter did not. An ancestral temple used to be a place where rulers, the nobility, and senior officials made offerings to their ancestors. Therefore, an ancestral temple was a product of ancestral worshipping and a symbol of the patriarchal clan system. It is the defining structure of a du. During the Zhou Dynasty, the political center of all ducal states was called du. From the Qin and Han dynasties onward, du referred to the place where the emperor lived. Later, all cities large in scale and population were called du.
DETAILED>>Dui (marsh) is one of the eight trigrams, bundled together in the shape of ☱. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams, composed of two trigrams like this. In the eight-trigram system, it symbolizes the marsh or lake. The marsh fosters all forms of life, therefore making everything pleasant. The term is composed of one broken line and two unbroken lines. It is considered a yin trigram and a symbol for the female. Since the broken line lies above the two whole lines, it is considered to stand for the youngest daughter of a family.
DETAILED>>The Chinese character fa (法), originally meaning “penalty,” refers to the legal system consisting of laws, decrees, and regulations. In ancient China, both fa and li (礼rite) set standards for individual behavior. In particular, rites rewarded virtue, while laws punished vice. It was generally accepted that while only a sovereign ruler had the right to enact and promulgate laws, everyone, be it a ruler or a subject, had to obey the laws. This point of view reflects the justice and fairness of law. In 536 BC, Zichan (?-522 BC), the chief minister in the State of Zheng, had the legal provisions cast on a bronze ding, a tripodal vessel that symbolized the power of the ducal ruler. Zichan’s action, known as “casting the penal code,” was the very first example of publishing a statute in Chinese history. The Warring States Period witnessed the rise of the Legalists such as Shang Yang (390?-338 BC) and Hanfeizi (280?-233 BC).
Fa (法) is also a Buddhist term. In scriptures, it is the Chinese equivalent of the Sanskrit word dharma with three shades of meaning. First, it refers to real being, which is the object of genuine knowledge. Buddhism argues that all things in daily life are produced through the concomitance of causes and conditions. In this sense, what one appears to see or know is unreal in nature. However, one can perceive the dharmas, the indivisible real elements beneath the surface, through mental practices. Indeed, there are more than a hundred types of the elements, such as substance and consciousness. Second, dharma can be defined as the Buddhist teachings. The teachings here not only refer to the words dictated by the Buddha but also what dharma-hearers receive and pursue. This point of view is different from the characteristics of dharma discussed in the Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Advanced Dharma). But they do not contradict each other, because both of them advocate that perception of reality be based on relevant teachings. For Buddhism as a whole, the teachings constitute a significant portion of its knowledge system; for all Buddhists, the teachings pave the way for their personal liberation. Third, dharma denotes the worldly phenomenon, which is clearly distinguishable from the previous meaning. In scriptures, zhufa (all dharmas) and wanfa (tens of thousands of dharmas) represent all worldly phenomena, unreal in nature, in the broadest sense.
DETAILED>>This term means a reversal to an original and opposite state. By extension, it also refers to the way changes occur in a relationship of opposites. In this sense, the term has two different meanings: one is that a thing’s attribute or state will under certain circumstances always transform itself to its opposite; the other is that a thing reverts to its original or fundamental state or attribute. The concept of reversal to an opposite is an expression of the ancient Chinese understanding of the rules governing the way things change.
DETAILED>>This may be used to describe either social status or precedence in seniority. In a specific system, or order, it is used to refer to the natural attributes and limitations that differentiate one thing from another. It projects the distinct quality of one thing and at the same time draws the line that marks its difference from others, such as the attributes that differentiate heaven from man, between private and public, and between life and death. It can derive from either natural law or designated titles or standards. As far as the innate character of objects or a person is concerned, the term xingfen (性分)is used, meaning “different characters between different objects or people.” In human relations, the responsibility for different people of social status is called zhifen (职分), meaning the special quality that distinguishes one person’s responsibility from that of another.
DETAILED>>Songs are a kind of short, rhyming composition. It is a form of artistic creation combining literature, music, and even dance which can be sung. The difference between songs and poems in ancient China is that the former could be made into music and sung, whereas the latter could not. In a broad sense, the term includes children’s ballads and folk ballads. In a narrow sense, songs and ballads are different. Songs have a fixed melody and musical accompaniment, while ballads do not. Songs were created mostly by folk musicians, such as “A Slow Song” of the Han Dynasty and the folk song “Song of the Chile” during the Northern Dynasties. A small number of songs, however, were written by members of the literati, like “Ode to the Great Wind” by Liu Bang (256 or 247-195 BC) and “The Midnight Melody of the Land of Wu” by Li Bai (701-762). Songs are one of the early forms of ancient Chinese poetic art and were generally classified as yuefu (乐府) poetry in ancient China. In modern times, they are called poetic songs as a part of poetry.
DETAILED>>This term means to study or examine things, people or any phenomenon. It is an approach developed by Confucian scholars to help people obtain accurate assessments of things around them and to cultivate morals and ethics, as a kind of methodology. Sometimes the term is used as a noun to refer to a standard or criterion. When the term is used to assess a person’s qualifications, it refers to his moral quality which is to say, a person’s personality or moral integrity, as well as attainments in learning. In literary criticism, it has three connotations: first of all, it refers to the basic requirements and methods for poem or prose writing; second, it refers to the taste, style, and literary attainment; third, it is about the overall structure of a literary work or how the form and content are integrated. All in all, the term refers to the criteria applied in judging a literary work.
DETAILED>>This is one of the eight trigrams, bundled together
in the shape of ☶. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams, composed
of two trigrams like this
. In the eight-trigram system, it
symbolizes the mountain. The mountain is still, meaning that everything can be
brought to a
conclusion and
gets what it is supposed to obtain. The term is composed of one unbroken line
and two broken lines. It is considered a yang trigram and symbolizes the male. As the unbroken line lies above the two broken
lines, it is considered to stand for the youngest son of a family.
Gu (故) denotes the cause of things. This causal connection, represented by gu, forms a fundamental relationship among things. Analyzing these causes is vital for discerning things. Understanding the causes shaping events enables one to handle situations appropriately and guide their development effectively.
DETAILED>>Guan (观), namely observation, is a way for individuals to understand things. Generally speaking, it refers to the observer being outside of the thing being observed and using calm observation to examine and understand the existence and operation of that thing. Guan is different from the general meaning of kan (看looking). It implies a more comprehensive and long-term observation of things. Through this kind of observation, people can delve more deeply into the basis of things and the rules they follow.
DETAILED>>The ancient Chinese believed that coexistence of different things and a stable order among them could not be realized by eliminating their differences; such coexistence could be achieved only by seeking to get along in harmony on the basis of respecting and preserving individual differences. That is what is meant by “harmony.” In such a way, different things can develop themselves while complementing each other, stimulating the vitality of both individuals and all.
DETAILED>>Ji (几) refers to an omen indicating the emerging or changing of things. Ancient Chinese believed that a subtle omen would appear before something new emerged or when something old was about to change, or before the differentiation of good and evil in human nature occurred. An omen is either visible or hidden inside something old. One should develop the ability to identify and use an omen. When one is adept at identifying an omen that something is emerging or changing and makes use of it at the appropriate moment, one can foresee and grasp the way things emerge and change, thus pursuing the desired course and avoiding harm.
DETAILED>>Thriftiness is a virtue espoused by ancient Chinese. However, its meaning varies somewhat among different schools of thought. According to the Confucian school, thriftiness meant rejecting extravagance and waste. One should practice no extravagance in holding a ceremony or in daily life. Extravagance causes waste of things. Moreover, it would lead people to indulge in the pursuit of wealth and thus deviate from the goal of the ceremony or action. To the Daoist school, thriftiness only referred to thriftiness expected of a ruler. The ruler should not satisfy his own desire by extracting wealth from the people and wasting it. Instead, he should practice thriftiness so as not to impose undue burden on people's lives.
DETAILED>>This term means to treat people and things with reverence. Respect is a virtue expounded by Confucian scholars which requires people to maintain a reverential attitude towards a particular group of people or things. For example, those in a lower position should respect their superiors, and the young should respect elders. In the context of different relationships, respect means either respectful awe or respectful love. Respect is a concrete expression of rules governing interpersonal relations laid out by norms of propriety. By maintaining a respectful attitude, a person can appreciate one’s inherent meaning, awaken one’s inner consciousness and maintain both self-reflection and self-control
DETAILED>>Originally, the term referred to the Son of Heaven, dukes or princes, ministers, and senior officials who owned land and ruled the common people. It later referred to ducal monarchs and the emperor only. The Chinese character 君 is composed of two parts, namely, 尹 and 口. The top part 尹 means to run a country and govern its people, and the lower part 口 means to give orders. Ancient Chinese believed that a monarch or nobility must possess four qualities: first, having extraordinary virtues and be competent; second, having the mandate of heaven; third, in possession of land or manor; and fourth, having the ability to govern officials and common people, and enjoying their unfailing loyalty.
DETAILED>>Kan (坎)
is one of the eight trigrams,
represented by the diagram ☵. It is also one of
the 64 hexagrams and composed of two trigrams like this 
. Kan symbolizes water, which moistens all things on earth. Since water always flows
toward or deposits in a lower place, it also implies mire or danger. The symbol is composed of one
unbroken line and two broken lines. It is considered a yang trigram and
symbolizes the male. With
the unbroken line in the
middle, it also represents
the middle son of a family.
The basic meaning of this term is voidness. It denotes that things do not have a constant or unchanging essence. It also means that things are illusory, not real. The essence of something independently existing is called “own-being,” or “svabhāva.” Buddhism denies the existence of this kind of essence. Instead, it believes that all worldly phenomena are assembled or dispersed by causes and conditions. “Own-being” is just the solidification of conceptual thinking vis-à-vis the phenomenal world. “Absence of own-being,” or “nihsvabhāva,” namely the viewpoint of “emptiness,” is particularly prominent within the Great Vehicle (Mahāyāna) sect of Buddhism. It completely denies any permanent real nature summarized in any term or phrase, going as far as to include the doctrine of Buddhism itself.
DETAILED>>This term means the suffering from afflictions. The implications of “suffering” in Buddhism are very broad. Namely it refers to the physical and the mental pain experienced in specific events. It also refers to the suffering when joy fades, up to the suffering that all is impermanent and changing. On the whole one speaks of “three kinds of sufferings,” namely “suffering qua suffering or duh khaduh,” “suffering of change, or viparināmaduhkhatā,” and “suffering inherent in conditioning, or samskāraduhkhatā.” The understanding of “suffering” is the starting point to practice the Buddhist doctrine: only when one recognizes that life is suffering can one be determined to try to understand and to analyze the causes of suffering. After that one may eliminate these causes through effective methods. As a consequence one may stay away from affliction and even from the reincarnation. These are the four truths: suffering, its cause, its extinction, and the path.
DETAILED>>One of the eight trigrams, kun(坤) consists of three yin lines: ☷. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams when it consists of six yin lines:
. According to scholars on The Book of Changes, as the kun trigram is composed only of yin lines, it is purely yin and is thus used to symbolize all yin things or principles. The kun trigram symbolizes earth, and when it comes to society, it symbolizes the social roles played the by the female, the mother, and the subjects of the ruler, as well as gentle, kind, and generous ways of doing things. In this context, kun also means creating and nourishing all things under heaven.
Yue (乐) is one of the six arts of ancient times, often mentioned together with li (礼 rites / social norms). In contrast to external rules and rites, music touches the emotions and thus can affect human behavior. However, not all music counts as the Confucian yue which must have the effect of making the listener calm and measured so as to willingly behave in accordance with social norms, and thus engage harmoniously with others. Yue is often associated with other forms of ceremonial actions; it is one important way of maintaining proper human relations and encouraging better social practices and customs.
DETAILED>>Lei (类) is used to refer to people or things which have similar attributes or characteristics. It represents recognition of the commonalities of things and the differences between categories. Establishing which categories individual entities belong to, and what distinctions and boundaries there are between different types is the basis for naming and developing an order of all things in the world. Many ancient schools of thought studied the concept of lei, and offered different views on the use of category names, the principles of categorization, and the relationships between objects in the same category.
DETAILED>>Li (离)
is one of the eight trigrams,
represented by the diagram ☲. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams
and composed of two trigrams like this 
. Li symbolizes fire, which implies drying up all things. Since fire depends on combustible material to spread, it implies a relationship of dependence. The term is composed of one broken line and two unbroken
lines. It is considered a yin trigram and symbolizes the female. The broken
line lies in the middle, therefore it stands for the middle daughter of a
family.
Li (礼) is a general term for social norms which regulate an individual’s relationship with other people, everything else in nature, and even ghosts and spirits. By setting various regulations about ceremonial vessels, rituals, and systems, rites define an individual’s specific status and corresponding duty and power, thereby differentiating between people in a community in terms of age, kinship, and social status. With such differentiations, the rites determine the proper position of each individual, thus achieving harmony among human beings, and between humanity and everything else in nature.
DETAILED>>The original meaning of li (理) was the texture of jade; later it was extended to contain three meanings: (1) the physical forms or proprieties of things, such as length, size, shape, tensile strength, weight, and color; (2) the universal laws followed by all things and beings; and (3) the original source or ontological existence of things. The last two meanings are similar to those of dao. Scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties were particularly interested in describing and explaining the philosophy known as li (理), and considered it as the highest realm, giving rise to the School of Principle which dominated academic thought in the period from the Song to the Ming dynasties.
DETAILED>>The term means human strength or capability. Strength refers to the power of one person, an organization or a country. Strength represents control or influence one exercises over oneself or something outside oneself. It should not be used as a tool by the strong to threaten the weak; rather, it should be employed in accordance with moral standards and the requirement of virtue. Whenever possible, people should endeavor to overcome obstacles and difficulties to reach goals in keeping with such standards and requirement. However, human strength has its limits; if something is beyond human strength or capability, it should be considered “fate,” and there is no need to pursue it any more.
The notion of enthralling charm carries a variety of meanings, such as symmetry, beauty, splendor, and attachment. It highlights the formal aesthetic features of magnificence, intricate beauty, and colorfulness, thus forming a major component of classical Chinese aesthetics. Stylistically, this term indicates elegance and majestic beauty. When referring to calligraphy, it suggests a nuanced taste and a delicate charm beyond the Chinese characters' external structures, arousing one's sense of beauty. When referring to music, enthralling charm appears in a miraculous melody, calling to mind a classical grace and serenity.
Gain means all factors conducive to the survival and development of individuals and groups. The ancients often contrasted gain with righteousness. There is private and public gain. The former is related to individuals, their families or special groups, and consists of such things as goods, money, reputation, power and status. When personal interests clash with the interests of others, people tend to achieve gains for themselves at the expense of other people’s interests. Public gain is shared by everyone in society and mainly means a large population, abundant property, good public order and high moral standards. Proceeding from different perspectives and viewpoints, ancient China’s schools of thought had conspicuous differences in their interests and attitudes in regard to gain.
The dragon is a mystique and auspicious animal in Chinese mythology, with its image having the features of a number of animals: bull's head, deer antlers, shrimp's eyes, donkey's mouth, human beard, snake's body, and eagle's claws. It can walk, fly, swim, and even raise clouds and make rain. It holds boundless supernatural powers and can transform itself into different creatures at will. As one of the oldest totems of the Chinese nation, the dragon became a symbol of the emperor or the imperial house after the Qin and Han dynasties. Later, it further evolved into a common spiritual and cultural symbol of the Han ethnic group and all Chinese people. In China, the dragon represents unity, power, reverence, dignity, excellence and good luck, which is quite opposite to the evil and greedy dragon in Western mythology and tradition.
DETAILED>>The earliest meaning of the term was mandate of heaven, that is, the intentions and instructions that heaven expressed to humans. The implication was that Heaven meted out rewards and punishments on human beings as their moral conduct deserved. The mandate of heaven was considered an irresistible force that determined dynastic changes, the rise and fall of nations, and even the fate of ordinary people. Later, the link with Heaven became weaker; instead, the unavoidable destiny or fate prevailed. For human beings, the term implies the external limits that determine what is possible and what is not. In one sense, it expresses the helplessness of human beings.
DETAILED>>In the literal sense, the Chinese character nian (年) means the ripening of crops. As crops are mostly harvested annually, the Chinese character nian has gradually come to refer to the period of one year, and later it is used to refer to the annual Spring Festival. When it comes to the calendar, it refers to the period of one year on the lunar calendar (lunisolar calendar), which has 12 months: 7 months each of 30 days and 5 months of 29 days, altogether 354 or 355 days. A leap year has 13 months, altogether 383 or 384 or 385 days a year. As a lunar calendar, it is closely related to agricultural production cycles in ancient China, and it epitomizes ancient Chinese people’s awareness of time and concept in an agrarian society. The Gregorian calendar from the West was adopted by the Republic of China in 1912, ushering in a dual system of lunar and solar calendars. As a result, nian (year) refers to a year on the solar or lunar calendar, depending on the context.
DETAILED>>Qi (vital force) has a material existence independent of subjective consciousness and is the basic element of all physical beings. It is also the basis for the birth and existence of life and spirit. In addition, some thinkers have given a moral attribute to qi. Qi is in constant motion and change, and has no specific shape. Its concentration gives birth to a thing and its evaporation signals the end of that thing. Qi permeates all physical beings and their surroundings. Qi, as a philosophical concept, is different from what is commonly understood by the word qi (气), namely, air. Although things in liquid or solid form are different from things in air form, from the perspective of the ancient Chinese philosophy, their formation and existence are the results of the concentration of qi.
DETAILED>>Qi (器) is a real object or a specific official, position, etc. A qi is something visible, or something one may describe in concrete terms. Every kind of qi has a specific form, function, or capability. Therefore there are clear distinctions between one qi and another. However, a common dao exists in different kinds of qi. The existence of a qi is based on dao. In terms of human affairs, an individual assumes a particular responsibility suited to his position； but he should go beyond his specific capabilities and strive to adhere to and obtain dao.
DETAILED>>One of the eight trigrams, it consists of three yang lines: ☰. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams when it consists of six yang lines:
. According to scholars on The Book of Changes, as the qian trigram is composed only of yang lines, it is purely yang and is thus used to symbolize all yang things or principles. The qian trigram symbolizes heaven, and in social terms, it symbolizes the social roles played by the male, the father, and the monarch, as well as decisive and vigorous ways of doing things. In this context, qian also means creating and leading all things under heaven.
The term has three different meanings. First, it means human emotions and desires, referring to the natural and instinctive reaction to external circumstances, not a learned response. Second, it refers to specific human emotions and desires, commonly known as the six human emotions: love, hate, delight, anger, sadness, and joy, or as the seven human emotions: happiness, anger, sadness, fear, love, hatred, and desire. Third, it means the true state of affairs, or actual situation. For centuries, scholars have had different interpretations on the first two meanings. Some advocated that emotions should be restrained or controlled, while others believed that emotions and desires were natural and should be properly guided.
DETAILED>>Qu (曲) is a literary form that came into being later than poetry and ci (词). It generally refers to the northern- and southern-style melodies created in the Song and Jin dynasties. Northern melodies were composed mostly with tunes in northern China and performed in northern dialect, while southern melodies had southern tunes and southern dialect. Since qu reached its peak in the Yuan Dynasty, it is generally known as Yuan qu or Yuan opera. Qu is similar to ci in form but is more flexible in sentence structure, and colloquial language is used. There are two main types of qu: one is northern zaju (杂剧) opera and southern chuanqi (传奇) opera； such qu is known as xiqu (戏曲) or juqu (剧曲). The other type is sanqu (散曲) or lyric songs, also known as qingqu (清曲). As with other forms of poetry, sanqu describes a scene, a sentiment or an event and can be sung, but it has no spoken parts or instructions for performers’ movements and expressions. Generally speaking, the old-style opera is much more accomplished and influential than sanqu. The Yuan period was a golden age in the development of Chinese opera. There are more than 80 known playwrights from that time. Guan Hanqing, Ma Zhiyuan (1251?-1321?), Bai Pu (1226-1306?), and Zheng Guangzu (?-
Qu is the aspirations, emotions, and interests expressed in the work of a writer or artist. His pursuit of qu determines his unique perception and comprehension of nature and life. It also determines what theme he chooses for his work and how he gives expression to it. Qu is invisible but manifests its value and appeal through aesthetic appreciation.
DETAILED>>Qun (群) means a group or to form a group. A qun consists of people gathered together within defined limits. The formation of groups is a fundamental state of human existence. Among human groups, various relations and hierarchies will form between individuals and between individuals and the group. An orderly group can provide the security necessary for survival of individuals. At the same time, good and stable group order is an important condition for the continuous flourishing and development of the group.
DETAILED>>The Chinese character for human being (人) has been imbued with Chinese humanistic spirit since it was created. In its ancient form, it resembled a man standing with his body slightly bending forward, his hands on his sides, looking modest and polite. Because humans have the ability to think, they understand that an individual is too weak to survive alone and, therefore, they need to cooperate with each other. Ancient Chinese thinkers believed that human beings were one of the three elements of the universe, the other two being heaven and earth. Humanity was the soul of the world; therefore, human beings were the most distinguished among all things. Many ancient concepts, particularly in the political and ethical spheres, were based on this humanistic spirit.
DETAILED>>The basic meaning of the term is love for others. Its extended meaning refers to the state of harmony among people, and the unity of all things under heaven. Ren (仁) constitutes the foundation and basis for moral behavior. It is also a consciousness that corresponds to the norms of moral behavior. Roughly put, ren has the following three implications: 1) compassion or conscience; 2) virtue of respect built upon the relationship between fathers and sons and among brothers; and 3) the unity of all things under heaven. Confucianism holds ren as the highest moral principle. Ren is taken as love in the order of first showing filial piety to one’s parents and elder brothers, and then extending love and care to other members of the family, and eventually to everyone else under heaven.
DETAILED>>In Buddhist terminology rūpa refers to perceivable things, comprising materiality and forms. Rūpa originally indicates things with a shape, objects recognized by the organ of sight. Rūpa further forms a pair with ming (名 nāman), or name, listed among the twelve links of dependent origination in the combination mingse (名色 nāmarūpa), name-and-form, indicating the totality of mind and matter of a living individual in transmigration (samsara). In general the term rūpa can denote any material form which is perceivable, perishable matter composed of atoms. But under circumstances Buddhist terminology also uses the concept of "non-informative matter" (avijňapti-rūpa), so as to distinguish it from visible matter, referring to something with form and causal efficacies, but of ineffable condition.
The term has four meanings. First, it indicates a deity in a personified sense, possessing superhuman capabilities. Natural things, such as heaven and earth, mountains and rivers, sun and moon, and stars, have their deity. A human soul may also become a deity after death. Second, it indicates the human spirit and mind. Daoism considers “spirit” to be the dominating factor in human life. Therefore, maintaining and refining the spirit is most important to prolong life. Third, it indicates the subtle and unfathomable changing of all things as well as heaven and earth occurring under the interaction of yin and yang. In this sense the term is often used together with hua (化 change), the combination being called “divine change.” Fourth, it indicates a marvelous and unfathomable realm in life attained by a person.
DETAILED>>Sheng (生), literally meaning “give birth” or “generate,” describes the process of transformation from nonexistence to existence. In ancient times, many believed that all things in nature were generated from certain overarching dynamics of the cosmos, including tian (heaven), dao (the way), li (principles), qi (vital force), and wu (void); while some others believed that all things were self-generating, not dependent on external forces. During the process of sheng, all things acquire their initial qualities, functions, and procedures for continuation. For such creatures as humans, birds, beasts, and plants in particular, sheng signifies the attainment of life, making the word also synonymous with “life.”The instinctive qualities, functions, and procedures resulting from sheng exert an inner influence on the existence of all things. These aspects constitute the basis on which people establish and maintain the order of their lives, as well as the factors they have to confront.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the highest realm of human integrity and morality, hence one who has reached this state is a sage. It is often used in relation to “intelligence,” since an intelligent man understands the way of man, while a sage understands the way of heaven. Thus a sage with knowledge of the way of heaven will interact successfully with other people.
DETAILED>>Shi (诗) is a major genre of ancient Chinese literature, the earliest literary form that emerged in China. Observing the requirements of a certain rhythm, rules of rhyming, number of characters, and type of verses, and using concise language and rich imagination, it reflects social life and conveys thoughts and emotions. Shi and wen (文) are two principal forms of ancient Chinese literature. Shi, as referred to by the ancient Chinese, consists of the older type of poetry and the latter type of poetry. It generally does not include ci (词 lyric) and qu (曲 melody), which appeared as literary genres after the Tang Dynasty. The older type of shi is also called gufeng (古风), meaning ancient style, which is a general appellation for all kinds of poetic forms produced prior to the latter type of shi, except the style employed in the odes of Chu. With relatively few restrictions in rules and forms, shi is not constrained by any antithetical arrangement or a fixed tone pattern, and its rhyme is fairly free. In addition, the length of a piece is not limited. A verse may have four, six, seven, or a mixed number of Chinese characters. The latter type of shi is also called gelüshi (格律诗), meaning poetry with fixed patterns. Its number of characters, rhyming, tone pattern, and antithetical arrangement are all strictly fixed. A poem of this type may contain four lines (known as jue 绝), each with five or seven characters, or eight lines (known as lü 律), each with five or seven characters. Occasionally, it is much longer than normal, expanding to one and a half dozen lines, which is referred to as pailü (排律). The difference between shi, and ci and qu is that the former is not set to music, while the latter may be set to music and sung. Shi has existed as a literary form for more than 2, 000 years in China. Ancient Chinese used shi to connect humans with nature, voice aspirations, and give expression to emotions. It embodied the spirit and aesthetic pursuits of literature and art in ancient China, which is very different from the West, which only sees poetry as a category of literature. In ancient China, Confucian thought played an important guiding role in poetic creation, while Daoist and Buddhist thoughts had a profound influence on the theory of poetry’s artistic conception. Since The Book of Songs was China’s earliest collection of poems, later generations also used shi to refer to The Book of Songs in particular.
DETAILED>>Shi (时 time or timing) has the following three meanings: First, the sequence or rules of heaven’s way, such as spring, summer, autumn, and winter; or hours that mark changes of time during day and night; Second, a certain celestial phenomenon or climatic condition having impact on human activity, such as seasons for farming or timing for other activities; Third, the right time or opportunity that emerges in the course of human activity. The emergence or disappearance of timing is governed by the rules of heaven’s way or human behavior. People should gain a good understanding and master time or timing and their manifested rules and act in a way commensurate with them.
DETAILED>>Vijñāna, literally “understanding,” “recognition,” or “knowledge,” refers to the function of consciousness in Buddhism. It distorts a common man’s perception of the world and inflicts mental pain on him. To relieve the pain and restore a correct view, the man has to enhance his own consciousness. Generally regarded as a school of idealism, Yogācāra, literally “mind only,” argues that all worldly phenomena are actually shaped by consciousness, which can be divided into at least two parts: the seeing and the seen. Such consciousness is able to lay the foundation for cognition even before the external world exists. According to Yogācāra, there are eight types of consciousness based on objects of cognition. The six fundamental types of sensory consciousness of the eyes, the ears, the nose, the tongue, the body, and the mind respectively perceive form, sound, smell, taste, shape, and dharma. The seventh type of consciousness is kliṣṭamanovijñāna (“deluded consciousness”), and the eighth ālāyavijñāna (“storehouse consciousness”). Kliṣṭamanovijñāna performs a function of constant reflection, on which the consciousness of the mind is posited. It also persistently conceives ālāyavijñāna as the physical self. Ālayavijñāna, the repository of the seeds of karma, keeps the purity of all types of consciousness from being contaminated, even though they are in a state of contamination themselves. In order to sort out the entanglement of pollution and purity, the School of the Mahāyānasaṃgraha proposes another consciousness, amalavijñāna (immaculate consciousness), which distinguishes truth from falsehood.
DETAILED>>In ancient inscriptions on tortoise shells and ox scapula, together with inscriptions on ancient bronze objects, the pictographic Chinese character shi (史) represents a hand holding a writing brush or a hand holding a bamboo slip, referring to a court official in charge of keeping historical records. Explanation of Script and Elucidation of Characters by Xu Shen (58? - 147) in the Eastern Han Dynasty goes： “Shi is the person who keeps records of events. A hand in the middle implies maintaining justice.” Same in sound, two differently-written Chinese characters shi (史 history) and shi (事 events) are from the same origin, and those who keep notes of what happens are called shi (史record keeper) and what they write down is shi (事records). Later, what the officials in charge of keeping records of historical incidents or events or collections of these incidents or events as well as comments about them are also called shi (史), which literally means history. According to Xu Shen, the original pictograph representing the Chinese character shi looks like a hand kept in the middle, which means keeping records of historical incidents or events objectively without lending favor to any side of an issue. Great emphasis was once placed on keeping records of history, and during certain periods, even the sovereign rulers were not allowed to interfere with the work of officials in charge of keeping records of historical incidents or events. On the one hand, by keeping records of historical incidents or events, such officials posed a deterrent to rulers, who had to be careful about what they said and what they did. On the other hand, by keeping records of or commenting on historical figures or events, lessons could be summed up or examples be set up, which rulers could draw on and learn from. This tradition constitutes an important aspect of Chinese people’s humanistic and rationalistic spirit.
DETAILED>>This refers to the situation or trend in the development of things. The formation, existence and change of a situation hinges on how things are organized, their relative strength, and how they interact with each other. It also refers to topography, such as occupying a commanding position at a high location. It may also refer to how people behave as influenced by their social positions. In terms of literary work, a trend refers to a particular force running through a literary work arising from its structure and style. The impact of a tendency upon people and social affairs gives rise to laws governing nature and social development. One can accomplish great things by following and gaining a good command of social trends. Under certain conditions, one changes the developmental course of things by creating trends.
DETAILED>>The basic meaning of the term is to put oneself in another person’s position and have empathy, and to reflect what one would do in the same kind of situation. Starting out from their own likes and dislikes, people can understand and show considerations for the wishes of others, and on the basis of such understanding, people should refrain from imposing their own likes and dislikes on others. This is what it means to be considerate. To those enforcing the law and to the victims of wrongdoing, the meaning of the term extended to mean forgiveness or pardon.
DETAILED>>The term means the ability to reflect and evaluate. Confucian scholars considered this a unique quality of the human mind. By reflecting, a person will keep himself from being led astray or getting confused by what he sees or hears. Through reflecting, a person will discover the foundation of morality. This leads to understanding the way of heaven, and eventually, the essence of being human. Without reflecting, humans will lose their individual consciousness and independence.
DETAILED>>Ti (体) has three different meanings in the study of literature, art, and aesthetics. First, it refers to features that distinguish one particular category, form, or literary school from others. These features represent the overall form and artistic characteristics, including the structure, content, language, style, and other essential elements. Second, it refers only to literary and artistic style, not their form or shape. Third, it refers to the basic literary and artistic form, i.e., the writing style and literary genre. Scholars of literary theory in different historical periods did not use the same standards to classify literary styles. For example, Xiao Tong (501-531, Crown Prince
Fraternal duty is obedience to, and love and respect for one’s elder brother. To observe this, the younger brother must follow an elder brother’s guidance and orders. Fraternal duty should be rooted in the heartfelt love and respect for an elder brother. Confucians often speak of “fraternal duty” and “filial piety” together, believing that together they are the foundation for cultivating personal moral integrity, and are the basis for maintaining and strengthening family ethics, extending even to the political order.
DETAILED>>Tian (天) is a sacred and fundamental concept in ancient Chinese philosophy. It has three different meanings. The first is the physical sky or the entirety of nature (not including human society), the operations of which manifest certain laws and order. The second refers to a spiritual being, which possesses an anthropomorphic will and governs everything in the universe. The third denotes the universal law, which is observed by all things and beings, and which is also the basis of human nature, morality, and social and political orders.
DETAILED>>King was originally the title for the “Son of Heaven,” namely, the country’s supreme ruler in the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties. From the Spring and Autumn Period onward, the power of the Zhou court gradually weakened and the kingdom disintegrated. By the time of the Warring States Period, any monarch could call himself a king. Up to the Qin and Han dynasties, king became the highest title granted by the emperor to a male member of the imperial family. In the political philosophical discourse of Confucianism, especially in the works of Confucius（551-479 BC） and Mencius（372？-289 BC）, a king represents heaven’s will and therefore ought to have supreme, unchallengeable power; at the same time, he is imbued with a high moral attribute and political ideals. According to Confucianism, to be a king is to unify or govern the country with benevolence and righteousness, or to win over people by morally justified means. Likewise, the pursuit of the kingly way means using benevolent and righteous means to unify and govern the country.
DETAILED>>Wei (伪) means artifice, or modification by humans. Wei originally meant “by people,” and by extension it can have different meanings. First, in terms of nature, wei implies modifications and changes made by people to preexisting natural attributes or functions. Such modification exemplifies in daily human relations how humans are regulated by moral codes and rules of propriety. Xunzi (313?-238) felt that such modification of human nature was essential. Second, in terms of truth, wei implies the use of human behavior to mask the truth; this has connotations of falsehood and deception.
DETAILED>>Wu (物) usually denotes an existence in the universe that has a form or an image. In general, the word has three different meanings. First, it refers to any concrete existence, encompassing all natural and man-made objects, all organisms and human beings. Second, it covers interpersonal matters and activities such as taking care of one’s parents, entering politics, or managing state affairs. In this sense, wu means “matter.” Third, the word sums up all existing physical and social matters, generally called “everything.”
DETAILED>>Xi (习) means to develop a good command of something through frequent practices. Repeated practice is an important part of learning, which is necessary for acquiring knowledge and skills. In Confucian thinking, xi refers mostly to regular observance of ethics, rites and moral requirements. This will develop habits of speech and action required of a person of moral integrity.
This term refers to those who, with their own strength, stand up for the weak and daringly face down injustice. It depicts an ideal personal character that finds its echo in the hearts of everyday Chinese people – a shared aspiration that resonates deeply in the national collective psyche. The inspirational appeal of a man of righteousness or hero springs from a fusion of intrinsic values, underpinned by a sense of righteousness and courage. Righteousness represents moral integrity, a dogged determination to uphold justice and to stand by one’s word. Courage, meanwhile, refers to an abiding commitment to righteousness – stepping up, lending a hand, selflessly giving, serving the wider good, and walking the talk. Man of righteousness or hero is a resonant symbol in Chinese culture, encapsulating a deep admiration for those who are ready to pursue justice with no thought of oneself, thus epitomizing the spirit of a true hero.
DETAILED>>Xiang (象) refers to a visible but formless image or figure. It approximately has four different meanings. First, it refers to a manifest shape of dao. Laozi described dao as “a semblance of the unsubstantial,” also called “the great semblance.” Second, it indicates a manifest shape of objects. Xiang is less concrete or fixed than an object with a shape. It often means celestial phenomena, namely, the movements of the sun, the moon, and the stars, and the occurrence of wind, thunder, clouds, and rain. Celestial phenomena are relative to earthly shapes. Third, it refers to human temperament, namely, the human spirit and mind, manifested in words, deeds, and attitude. Fourth, it refers to figures symbolizing or imitating all things in heaven and on earth. Ancient Chinese created many kinds of systems of xiang, through the observation and interpretation of which they elucidated the changes in the movements of nature and of society, and also their laws. Among them, the system of the hexagrams and figures of The Book of Changes is the most influential.
DETAILED>>Filial piety is obedience to, and respect and love for your parents. To observe this, you must do the following. First, attentively keep your body, born by parents, safe from injury and illness so as to relieve them of their worries. Second, do not go against your parents’ teachings, guidance and requests; obey them even if you do not agree with them. Third, gain fame and become accomplished through moral integrity, so as to highlight their teachings and guidance. Filial piety is rooted in children’s love and respect for their parents. Confucians believe that filial piety is the foundation of a person’s moral integrity and the basis for maintaining and strengthening the parent-child relationship, and even the sovereign-subject relationship.
DETAILED>>The heart, a vital organ of life, underpins one’s emotions, awareness, and value judgments. Different from the ears, eyes, nose, and mouth, which sense the outer world in a passive way, the heart is capable of thinking and performing intellectual and moral evaluations on the basis of analyzing and sorting out what these organs have sensed. Mencius (372?-289 BC) believed that the heart consists of four aspects: compassion, deference, sense of shame or detestation, and conscience. Preserving and expanding one’s good heart is the central aim in practicing moral teachings. According to Daoism, a serene and uncluttered heart is the highest state for a human being, much like a peaceful pool of still water. Such calmness is the way in which the heart can capture the essence of all things in the world.
DETAILED>>This term means acting in good faith. Good faith is one of the principal ethical standards one should observe in order to establish oneself in society. However, one must comply with ethical principles in honoring a promise. If a promise goes against ethical principles, one should not blindly deliver it. Confucianism stresses the importance of acting in good faith for both rulers and people: A ruler must keep his promises made to the people so that they will abide by his decrees; one should be honest and truthful towards friends.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the state of mind in which external things evoke one’s inner feelings, thus creating aesthetic appreciation. As an aesthetic term, evocation means both stimulation and association. In artistic appreciation, Confucius（551-479 BC） used evocation to refer to the psychological effect and educational function of reading poetry, and it was not meant to be a literary term only. In artistic creation, evocation means association, which is among the six poetic forms, namely, ballads, narratives, analogies, association, court hymns, and eulogy, as described in The Book of Songs. The first three refer to the content and subtypes of classic Chinese poetry, whereas the latter three elements are creative means employed by The Book of Songs. Evocation is defined by the use of similar or relevant things to create a metaphor which, by virtue of imagination and association, conveys a message through imagery and highlights the nuances of poetry. Evocation arouses one’s imagination through reading a poem, making such experience an enjoyable one. It is a rhetorical means frequently used in classical Chinese poetry. At first, evocation was closely linked to analogy. Its implication and aesthetic properties started to grow independently in the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties period, and finally became a poetic term different from analogy and association. Evocation focuses on the impact of external things on one’s emotions.
DETAILED>>Xing (性) mainly referred to human nature in ancient times. The concept of xing has two essential points. First, it refers to the inherent nature of all things, not as a result of nurture. Second, it refers to the common nature of certain kind of things, not the nature of individual things of that kind. Similarly, human nature, too, has two meanings. First, it refers to inherent attributes all people share, including physical features, desires, and consciousness. Second, it is the essential and distinct attribute that distinguishes people from birds and beasts, in other words, human’s moral nature. Scholars throughout history held varied views over the question whether human nature was good or evil. Some believed it was good. Some thought it was evil. Some held that it was neither good nor evil. Some held that human nature could be both good and evil in the same person. Some thought that human nature was good in some people, but evil in others.
DETAILED>>Xu refers to a state of the cosmos or a state of mind. Basically, it has two different meanings. The first refers to the origin of the universe, indicating that everything originates from xu. Different ancient thinkers have different interpretations of this notion: Some take xu as being devoid of anything; others believe it is the state of existence of qi (气). Because qi is invisible and formless, it is said to be empty, but not a vacuum totally devoid of anything. The second meaning of xu refers to a state of mind that is peaceful, not preoccupied or simply free of any preconceptions.
DETAILED>>To Confucianism, learning is the way to cultivate oneself to achieve moral integrity. The usual meaning of the term is to acquire knowledge and understanding, but for Confucianism it focuses more on the cultivation of moral and ethical qualities to achieve personal growth. Through learning classics and rites, and following the practices of sages, a person is able to cultivate and improve his moral standards and thus become a person of ideal qualities. Daoists, on the other hand, are against learning, and Laozi said that “fine-sounding arguments” only cause unnecessary worries, and can disrupt a person’s natural state of mind.
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Xun(wind) is one of the eight trigrams, bundled together in the shape of ☴. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams, composed of two trigrams like this
. In the eight-trigram system, it symbolizes the wind. The wind blows and disperses gently and permeates everything. The term is composed of one broken line and two unbroken lines. It is considered a yin trigram and symbolizes the female. Since the broken line lies under the two whole lines, it is considered the senior yin trigram and stands for the eldest daughter of a family.
Yan (言) means language, or words. Language is the basic vehicle through which people express thoughts and wishes, and with which they conduct exchanges. There are still debates regarding whether or not language can accurately and completely express thinking. For various reasons, language may be used by people – deliberately or not – to obfuscate or erroneously express ideas. Moreover, yan at times specifically referred to a means by which those in government instructed the populace. Confucians stressed the role of “conveying through words,” while Daoists favored “wordless instruction.”
DETAILED>>This term generally indicates any behavior of beings that may bring about a subsequent effect. Such behavior is subdivided into three kinds: corporal, verbal, and mental. The subdivision corresponds with the behaviors of the body, of speech, and of thought. They can all produce results: good, bad, or something in between. Therefore, concerning their value, one can distinguish wholesome action, evil action, and also those which cannot bring about the wholesome or the unwholesome. In the idea of the reincarnation in Buddhism, behavior in a previous life determines the form of existence in a later world. Because of this, no matter whether one has deliverance as one’s goal or not, in order to obtain a result hoped, it is extremely important to control one’s three actions: corporal, verbal, and mental.
DETAILED>>The term has three meanings. First, it indicates the original essence of all things. It is another name for dao (way). It is also referred to as taiyi (the supreme one). Second, it refers to the state of chaos before the separation of heaven and earth. The one was divided and transformed into heaven and earth. All things in heaven and on earth were produced from this Chaotic entity. Third, it indicates the unity of things, as opposed to “many” or “two.” The idea is to emphasize the unity among things which are different or opposite.
DETAILED>>The basic meaning of yi (义) is “reasonable” and “proper.” It has two extended meanings. One is the proper basis and standard for people’s actions. The other is to adjust one’s words or deeds to meet certain standards, under the guidance of moral judgments. Scholars in the Song Dynasty used li (理) or “principles of heaven” to interpret yi, and considered yi to be the reasonable standard defined by the “principles of heaven,” and hoped that people’s words and deeds would fall in line with the “principles of heaven.”
DETAILED>>Yin (因), which means “follow” or “inherit,” embodies a distinct attitude and approach towards things. When people yin something, they adhere to its inherent forms or rules of existence and operation, refraining from imposing their own demands or external standards. This treatment acknowledges the innate reasonableness within the object or its evolution, justifying the significance of preserving and inheriting such reasonableness.
DETAILED>>Musical sounds, or simply music, are artistically rhythmical sounds flowing forth from one’s stirring emotions. Ancient Chinese often made a distinction between musical sounds and plain sounds. Sounds created by a natural environment are plain sounds, while those created when emotions well up in one’s heart is music. A single sound is called sheng (声), different sounds that come together are called yin (音); when these sounds beautifully fit together, they are called music (yue 乐). Ancient Chinese believed that musical sounds derive from one's inner motions, and that the music of a country or a region reflects the popular sentiments and the social mores there. Hence Confucian scholars believed that art and literature demonstrate both virtues and flaws in a country's governance and therefore play the role of moral education.
The basic meaning of yong (勇) is courage, which is a virtue. When necessary, a courageous person is expected to fearlessly stop any act that violates ethical principles without giving any consideration to his own personal interests. Acts of courage must be based upon recognition and observance of ethical and social norms. Otherwise, such acts may become ruthless, brutal and risky, and cause social chaos.
DETAILED>>This
term refers to a relaxed and unencumbered approach to people and things. To be
unattached, one needs to keep at arm's length when he comes into contact with
other people or things. He should not be too detached, thus unable to have
contact with people or objects and know them intimately. Neither should he become too close to people or objects and be
influenced by them. He should stay
comfortably independent from the people or object under study so as to gain a
deeper understanding of them.
This term refers to the yearning for external objects. Yu(欲) is the desire for external things such as food and beauty. This desire is a natural instinct，so it should be satisfied to an appropriate degree and be restrained at the same time. Excessive desire can be harmful to a person, create disputes between people and cause disorder. Desire also refers to the pursuit of virtue, something that is inherent part of human instinct.
DETAILED>>The term means the primal source from which all things originate, both animate and inanimate, including human beings. Yuan (元) manifests itself in different forms. In the Han Dynasty, it was considered a kind of primal physical material that both produced and made up the myriad things of the world. The Book of Changes divides yuan into two primal sources: the heavenly source which gives birth to the sun, moon, and stars, and the earthly source which creates all other things on earth. In The Spring and Autumn Annals, the term refers to the first year in its chronologies, symbolizing the start of a new historical period, and serving as the manifestation in the human world of the natural process in which things begin, end, and are replaced.
DETAILED>>This term has two meanings. Firstly, as a stylistic term in writing, it represents a combination of elegant, concordant, and melodious sounds. Rhyme originally was one of the factors contributing to the correct pronunciation of Chinese characters. Rhyme is important for poetry, including ci poetry, and ballad verses. In such writings, attention is placed on where rhyming should take place in a poetic line, whether rhymes actually match well, and rhythms’ harmonious variations, thus showing the rhythmical beauty of the Chinese language. Secondly, as a literary term, it means charm, suggesting natural fluidity and elegant simplicity. It is often used together with other Chinese characters to mean vivid charm, graceful appeal, or creative verve. Nuanced beauty is widely used in commentaries on painting, calligraphy and musical composition. Charm and vividness both refer to an indescribable appeal a piece of artistic writing emanates, but the former is more about aspects such as tenderness, implications, elegance and natural flow of such a work.
DETAILED>>It refers to rules and principles. The term denotes not only natural laws governing the movement of things in the universe, but also ethical principles that guide human life. These rules, laws, and principles establish the fundamental order in the world in which we live; and their violations will lead to turmoil and disaster. Some believe that the universe and human society are governed by the same rules and principles, with society inheriting or following the rules and laws of the universe. Others argue that the universe and human society follow separate and independent rules and laws.
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Zhen is one of the eight trigrams. Its diagram is ☳. It is also one of the 64 trigrams and composed of two trigrams like this
. In the eight trigram system, this one basically means thunder, the shock of which causes all things to vibrate. Therefore it means vibration, impulse or mobilization. Composed of one whole line and two broken lines, it is considered a yang trigram, symbolizing the male in human relations. Since the whole line is at the bottom of this trigram, it is the first of the yang trigrams and stands for the eldest son of a family.
The basic meaning of “rectitude” is uprightness. More specifically, there are two interpretations of “rectitude.” The first interpretation refers to words and deeds that meet the moral standards or the rules of propriety. To be “upright” is to refrain from doing anything immoral or illegal for the sake of personal gain. However, because there are different understandings of morality and propriety, there are also different views, even conflicting ones, of how “rectitude” is manifested. The second interpretation of being “upright” is acting in accordance with facts and not concealing the truth in order to meet the expectations or needs of others.
DETAILED>>Zhi (智), originally written as zhi (知 a different Chinese character representing knowing), means intelligence. It suggests clear cognition and good judgment of right and wrong, advantage and disadvantage. Intelligence shows both one’s awareness of other people and events as well as one’s ability to conduct introspection. Confucianism believes that people should have intelligence so as not to be confused by complexities of life and be able to act in conformity with ethical and ritual standards. However, excessive use of intelligence may lead to deception and fraud. Therefore, Daoists tend to view intelligence with suspicion and disapproval.
DETAILED>>Loyalty involves doing one’s utmost. A person in a certain position or office should wholeheartedly perform his duties and must not be influenced by personal interests. The object of loyalty can be the person who appoints you to your post or grants you a position； it can also be an organization, group or the state where you belong. For example, in ancient society it was thought the monarch should be loyal to the people while the subjects should be loyal to the monarch.
DETAILED>>Ai (哀) and diao (吊) essays were written in ancient times to express mourning for someone who had died a natural death or from an extreme misfortune. Ai, or an essay of mourning, was written to express grief or compassion. It was originally written for someone who died young; later, it was written to mourn a person’s miserable life or unfortunate encounters. Diao, or an essay of memory, was intended to express one’s deep affection for a long-deceased person or to offer his sincere condolences to the fatal misfortune suffered by a particular country or an individual. An essay of mourning was usually written for a recently deceased person, whereas an essay of memory showed one’s abiding love for someone who died long ago. Stylistically, there is much resemblance between these two types of writing. They were like today’s condolence speeches delivered at funerals, and some may be characterized as mourning or nostalgic lyrical essays. As Liu Xie (465?-520) put it in his literary critique The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, ai, or an essay of mourning, expresses sorrow for the deceased person’s yet unaccomplished merits, so it need not be excessively rhetorical in style. Diao, or an essay of memory, on the other hand, often shows one’s love for someone who died long ago, so it may contain an evaluation of his life tinged with sentimental attachment. Liu’s views still influence prose writing today.
The ancient Chinese considered loving others of one’s own kind to be part of the fundamental nature of animals with consciousness and intelligence, and this was particularly true of humans, the most advanced of all creatures. Human love is first of all manifested in love for one’s own kind. If a human loves other beings but not his or her fellow humans, that is not true love. Thus, human love first of all reaches other human beings, and love for humans is the fundamental nature of human love and also the origin of love for other creatures. So to love other human beings is a defining attribute of human beings.
DETAILED>>This term means to love and care for the common people. This is not only a sentiment which those who govern should have for the common people, but also an important principle which must be adhered to in governance. The ancient Chinese believed that those who govern should use specific policies and measures to benefit the people and enable them to live and work peacefully, free from sufferings and unwarranted infringements. This is the precondition or basis for those who govern to win the respect of the people. "Loving the people" was not only an important political concept - it also extended to the military sphere and became an important principle when raising armies to make war. According to this principle, the people of both one's own side and that of the enemy should receive caring love. This is a manifestation of the Chinese thinking "people first" and "benevolence and righteousness."
DETAILED>>The term means to ensure that the people live and work in peace and contentment. The ancients believed that this was the basic responsibility and main purpose of the state and of those governing it. A peaceful and satisfied populace results in widespread support for the rulers, making governance less costly and more effective. The heart of the concept is to guarantee the genuine interests of the people, and to identify and correct failings in both policies and procedures in a timely way. The expression mirrors the concept “people are the foundation of the state.
DETAILED>>Each of the eight trigrams consists of three lines and each line is either divided (- -) or undivided (—), representing yin or yang respectively. The eight trigrams are: qian (☰), kun (☷), zhen (☳), xun (☴), kan (☵), li (☲), gen (☶), and dui (☱). According to the ancient Chinese, the eight trigrams symbolized basic things and phenomena of nature or society and represented heaven, earth, thunder, wind, water, fire, mountain, and lake respectively. The ancient Chinese also used the interchanges and transformations of the eight trigrams and what they represented to understand and expound on natural and social changes and to explain why and how they took place.
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This term refers to the rule of a state by means of force and power as opposed to “benevolent governance.” The ruling court of the Zhou Dynasty began to decline in the Spring and Autumn Period while some of its vassal states grew stronger. Some state rulers, who were dukes or princes, began to maintain the social order by manipulating the throne and other state rulers. Some emerged as the more powerful among other states. Their governing principles and policies were regarded as despotic governance. In their governance, they valued benefits and power instead of benevolence and moral principles. They ruled by brutal force instead of by the force of morality; they governed by coercion instead of moral suasion. They ignored ethics and made people live in fear. All they cared for was the benefits to their own states. Such practices went against the philosophy of the Chinese nation that has all along upheld peace and harmony, not force. Since ancient times, China has valued benevolent governance, and rejected despotic rule. This is the historical and cultural foundation of the Chinese notion of opposing hegemony and power politics.
DETAILED>>Plain line drawing is one of the traditional Chinese styles of artistic presentation. It features the contours of images sketched in black ink lines. This style of painting is mostly used in painting human figures and flowers. Although not much ink is applied, this technique can achieve a very lively effect. Plain line drawing originated from the plain drawing of earlier times； through variations in lines’ length, thickness, pressure, and changes in trajectory, the artist can portray the texture and motion of images. Plain line drawing was prevalent from the Jin Dynasty through the Tang Dynasty. During the Song Dynasty, it formed a distinctive style of its own. Gu Kaizhi（345？-409）of the Jin Dynasty, Li Gonglin（1049-1106）of the Northern Song Dynasty, and Zhao Mengfu（1254-1322）of the Yuan Dynasty specialized in painting lines of perfectly even width like iron wire, while Wu Daozi of the Tang Dynasty and Ma Hezhi of the Southern Song Dynasty were renowned for their skill in drawing thick, wavy lines resembling orchid leaves. Plain drawing is also a very important style of expression in narrative literature. In this context it refers to a simple and concise style of writing, without embellishment, so as to produce fresh, lively images. In classic novels such as Outlaws of the Marsh or Romance of the Three Kingdoms, one finds abundant instances of a plain drawing style of writing.
DETAILED>>It’s a generic term in history for performing arts, including martial arts, magic, taming animals, song and dance, farce, tightrope walking, knife swallowing, walking on fire, and other acrobatic performances. Such performing arts were diverse in both form and content and the performance could easily take place, the only criterion being to entertain the popular audience. Such performances began in Han times, and as culture and art forms from different ethnic groups were slowly integrated into local practice, performing arts and acrobatics came to be increasingly diversified. The term baixi (百戏) literally means “a hundred forms of performances,” and suggests, different kinds of performing arts. After the Southern and Northern Dynasties another term, sanyue (散乐), became synonymous with baixi. During the Tang Dynasty the performing arts became even more popular. In Song times sanyue came to refer mainly to song and dance performances or operas created by men of letters; while baixi came to mean principally acrobatic shows by folk artists. At times the authorities would impose a ban on baixi, believing that such performing arts exerted a bad influence on social customs. Still it is fair to say that baixi gave birth to high- brow song and dance as well as operas. It turned acrobatics into a form of intangible cultural heritage, enriching the cultural life of the people.
DETAILED>>Prajna/Wisdom
The term is the transliteration of the Sanskrit word prajñā, meaning wisdom. It refers to the supreme wisdom with insight into the nature and reality of all things. Buddhism believes that such wisdom surpasses all secular understandings, and therefore is the guide for or essence of the effort aimed at achieving enlightenment and attaining Buddhahood or bodhisattvahood. This wisdom has no form, no appearance, and cannot be expressed in words. It can only be achieved by undertaking a variety of accessible Buddhist practices.
DETAILED>>This term means safeguarding the people’s life. It first appeared in The Book of History. In the view of ancient Chinese, the mandate of heaven determined to whom supreme power in the human world belonged. The mandate was bestowed and removed according to predetermined principles. Virtuous rulers received the mandate, those without virtue lost it. The most important virtue for retaining the mandate of heaven was protecting the people, which was to ensure a safe and peaceful life for them, and this manifested the ruler’s love and care for his people. “Protecting the people” was a central goal of governance in ancient China.
Feeling depressed and enraged, which here refers to a sense of helplessness found in poems, is one of the 24 poetic styles summarized by Sikong Tu（837-908）, a poet in the late Tang Dynasty. Faced with frustrations and tough challenges in life, or overwhelmed by the immensity of nature or major events, poets were often seized by dejection, grief, sadness, and anger, which gave rise to a “depressed and enraged” style in poetry writing. While the style bears similarity with the genre of tragedy in Western literary tradition, it is more influenced by Daoism, often featuring a sense of resignation or stoic optimism.
DETAILED>>This term means to feel sad for others’ sadness and feel painful for others’ suffering. It is a combination of the Buddhist concept of “mercy” and Confucian concept of “compassion.” “Mercy” in Buddhism implies both kind-heartedness that brings peace and happiness to all and sympathy that relieves others from their misery. “Compassion” means sympathizing with people from the bottom of one’s heart over their misfortunes. Put together, they describe a noble mindset that takes other people’s suffering as one’s own, commiserates with the unfortunate while trying one’s best to free people from their miseries or disasters, and helps them to regain their peace and happiness. This kind of true benevolence and noble mind comes from a human being’s innate moral sense and is the source of the spiritual force that drives noble and eminent personalities.
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Beiqu (北曲),
the Northern Opera, originated in northern China. It was based on northern folk
songs that were popular in the Northern Song Dynasty or earlier, and its lyrics
were often funny and simple. After the Southern Song Dynasty,
northern China fell under the rule of the Jin and Yuan dynasties. As a result,
songs, dances, and musical elements of Nüzhen, Mongolian and other ethnic groups were widely
incorporated into the Northern Opera, making it a unique form of opera. At the
same time, many writers became interested in the Northern Opera and wrote large
numbers of excellent opera works. Compared
with the lyrics of the literati of the Song period, the Northern Opera was
simple, direct and sincere, and there was
greater freedom in arranging rhythm. The Northern Opera was performed mainly in
the form of short lyrics and cycles. As they dealt with various social themes, operas
performed in this artistic form were referred to as zaju (杂剧 opera of various themes). Writer in
the Yuan Dynasty had low social status, so they wrote a large number of
Northern Opera works to express their emotion and views. They are represented by Guan Hanqing, Ma Zhiyuan (1251?-1321?), Bai Pu (1226-1306?) and Zheng Guangzu (?-1324?), collectively known as the top four Yuan Opera writers.
The two characters literally mean the different parts of a plant, namely, its root and its foliage. The extended meaning is an important concept in Chinese philosophical discourse. The term can be understood in three different ways. 1) Ben (本) refers to what is fundamental or essential, while mo (末) means what is minor or incidental, two qualities that differ in value and importance. 2) Ben refers to the existence of the world in an ontological sense, while mo represents any specific thing or phenomenon. 3) In Daoist political philosophy ben is a state in which rule is exercised by not disrupting the natural order of the world, while mo refers to moral standards and fundamental principles governing social behavior. In any ben-mo relationship, ben is most important and plays a dominant role, while mo exists thanks to ben. On the other hand, it is through the vehicle of mo that ben exerts its influence. Thus the two, though different, are mutually dependent.
DETAILED>>The term originally referred to true colors and has been extended to mean true appearance. As a term of literary critique, bense (本色) has three meanings: 1) the artistic style and literary features that are compatible with a given genre; 2) the style and literary features that remain true to the writer’s individual character; and 3) the style that makes it possible for the writing to remain true to the author’s own experience and that gives truthful expression to his thoughts and feelings. Bense is not only a requirement for the writer but also for his works. In the literary criticism of the Song Dynasty, bense was often used to describe and evaluate the special qualities of different genres. In the literary criticism of the Ming and Qing dynasties, bense usually referred to the individual style of poets and writers and also those styles of writing that remained true to life experience and eschewed literary embellishment. Bense is often used together with danghang (当行professionalism) to mean “original and genuine”; it is often associated with the Dao of nature in classical Daoist philosophy, in opposition to the attitude and styles that stress literary embellishment.
DETAILED>>Benwu, or original non-being, is a term used to refer to void. Philosophical schools in the Eastern Jin Dynasty used it to bracket the doctrine of emptiness from the Prajñāpāramitā literatures ("The Perfection of Wisdom"), arguing that things are fundamentally non-existent. In the view of Seng Zhao (384 or 374–414) and the like , the pitfall of this standpoint, by emphasizing the absolute “emptiness,” is an inclination towards nihilism (which is expressively rejected by Buddhist doctrines). Seng Zhao thus criticized it through his writings: here affirmed the middle way (away from the two extremes of nihilism and eternalism), thus interpreted the emptiness as but the dependent origination. This term benwu can also be found in the works of later generations. In certain cases however, it was reinvented to be the “emptiness as the dependent origination” rather than “absolute emptiness”. So, one should be cautious about its various connotations in different historical context.
The term means likening certain characteristics of things in nature, including plants and animals, to human virtues. When extended to the domain of literary appreciation, it generally involves likening desirable objects to a noble personality. To perceive a natural phenomenon as a reflection or symbol of human characteristics is typical of the Confucian School, which takes aesthetic quality as a moral standard for people as well as literature and arts. Likening humans to nature implies that appreciation of nature is actually appreciation of humanity itself, particularly its moral character. It later became a technique employed in rhetoric and poetry.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the fundamental state of the existence of things. Bian (变) and hua (化) may be used as one word or separately. Specifically, bian means manifest change, while hua indicates subtle and gradual change. Ancient Chinese thinkers generally held that all things under heaven and on earth, including humans and society, are all in a state of change. Only through constant change can they permanently exist and develop. Change is caused by constant clash and integration between the conflicting properties with which people and things are endowed. Some scholars believed that change follows a constant law and can thus be understood and grasped, while others maintained that change is unpredictable and therefore difficult to grasp. Buddhism, on the other hand, holds that changes of things are only superficial, and that all things are still and motionless.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the differentiation of the form and style of a literary work. It means that before putting words on paper, one needs to decide on the form and style appropriate to the thoughts and feelings to be expressed so as to produce a fine literary work with a high degree of harmony between form and content. In creating literary works, ancient scholars tended to decide on the style before writing. Literary critics in the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties discussed in detail the artistic features and rules of all literary styles and stressed that authors must choose an appropriate form or style to express their thoughts and sentiments and strictly follow the rules of the style, language form, and writing technique required by the chosen form or style. This, they believed, was the only way to create excellent literary works. Contrary to the term “style differentiation,” the term poti (破体) or “breaking-down styles” refers to the integration of different styles or forms of literary works by breaking down their boundaries. Style differentiation sometimes refers to differentiating the form or style of a literary work in order to attain a lofty character and realm of literature.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a collection of works by an individual author, in contrast to an anthology which amalgamates the works of many writers. In the Western Han Dynasty, Liu Xin（？-23） composed Seven Categories, one of the categories being “The Catalogue of Shi and Fu,” which collects the literary works of 66 writers including Qu Yuan（340？-278？BC）, Tang Le, and Song Yu. Organized by author, “The Catalogue of Shi and Fu” was regarded as the beginning of individual collections. Many more individual collections were compiled in the Eastern Han Dynasty, as exemplified by the 886 collections of writers from the Han through Wei and Jin to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, recorded in The History of the Sui Dynasty. Nearly every author had his own collection. Collections devoted to poetry were usually entitled collection of poems while those concerned with prose or both poetry and prose were entitled collection of writings. An individual collection might be entitled after the author’s name, pen name, posthumous title, birth place, or residence. Containing all the major works of an author, an individual collection enables readers to learn about the author’s aspirations and therefore provides a valuable source for the study of his ideas and literary achievements for later generations.
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A distinct name is used for a particular category or a certain object. It is used by Xunzi (313?-238 BC) in contrast with “general name.” A name should denote the nature of a thing. Things in the same category that have unique features can be referred to by “distinct names.” Subsets within that category with further characteristics of their own can in turn have a higher-level “distinct name.” A distinct name with the broadest reference is called “broad distinct name.”
Bo (博) means extensive, wide; ai (爱) is synonymous with hui (惠) which means benefit to all. Ancient Chinese believed that ensuring the people a life of peace and security is hui. Love in turn is an expression of ren (仁) , or benevolence, which is based on close human relationships. The term applies primarily to a concept of governance of “love for and benefit to the people,” as demonstrated through its systems, laws, policies, and measures which should be as inclusive as possible. The term also refers to a kind of social morality and personal integrity based on harmonious engagement with others, goodwill, and mutual help.
DETAILED>>The concept of advaya instructs one to avoid the two extremes, to transcend all distinctions, and to treat all phenomena equally. A common man often understands the world in dichotomy, creating a number of opposites such as permanence versus impermanence and possession versus dispossession. Buddhists believe that dichotomy paints the picture of a world full of fantasies and distinctions, failing to truthfully reflect the reality. Such fantasies and distinctions are automatic in any understanding based on verbal concepts. Therefore, one shall avoid the two extremes and the misleading of worldly names and words. In this way can one transcend the distinctions perceived by a common man and achieve the ultimate wisdom of equality and emptiness.
DETAILED>>This refers to not contending for personal interest, power and other things and not involving in various infighting or strife. Excessive desire for material gains and power leads to contention, strife or even violence. Uncontrolled contention results in decline of public moral and breakdown of social order. This is why both Confucianism and Daoism believe in no contention. Confucianism maintains that rules of rites should be observed to restrain people’s desire. People should be guided by moral education, and they should think about how to behave properly rather than shifting blame on others. Thus, a state of no contention can be reached. Daoism maintains that one in power should not interfere in the lives of people so as to encourage them not to engage in contention. According to Daoism, the term not engaging in contention sometimes refers to the attitude of Dao towards everything in the world and that of one in power towards the common people. Dao does not favor contention with anything, so a king should not contend with the people.
DETAILED>>One way to confirm whether one’s assessments and opinions are correct is to verify them through observation and comparison. The method of cross- checking and verification was frequently mentioned in the pre-Qin period. Hanfeizi (280?-233 BC) expounded this method in detail. He believed that to determine whether something was correct or not, it was necessary to compare, check, and verify from various perspectives: from heaven, earth, objects, and human beings. In using this method, one should focus on the practical effects of assessments and opinions. Only such assessments and opinions that can be proven to produce real effects through comparison, cross-checking, and verification are correct. To blindly confirm something without cross-checking and verification is foolish.
DETAILED>>Cursive script, also known as running hand, is a particular style of Chinese calligraphy. It went through four stages of development: cursive clerical, semi-cursive, regular cursive and wild cursive. It began in the Han Dynasty, aiming to facilitate handwriting and increase efficiency. The first popular form of cursive script was cursive clerical. Later, calligraphers added or subtracted the number of strokes to turn the cursive clerical into semi-cursive. Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhi (?-192?) allegedly rid semi-cursive script of cursive clerical vestiges, linking the final strokes of the character above with the beginning stroke of the following character, eliminating certain radicals and borrowing strokes from neighboring parts to form regular cursive script (commonly known as “cursive hand” today). During the Tang Dynasty, Zhang Xu and Huaisu (725-785, or maybe 737-799), regarded as master calligraphers of the cursive style, gave full expression of their feelings and thoughts, and wrote their characters in a freer and more uninhibited manner. Their execution of strokes featured continuous stretches, gracefully circular movement, flowing contours, amazingly bold combinations of characters and a wide variety of patterns, leading to the emergence of “wild” cursive script. People of later generations also called the latter “great cursive” as opposed to “small cursive,” which in fact referred to regular cursive.
DETAILED>>The Great Wall, also known as the “10, 000-li (5, 000 kilometer) long Great Wall,” was a complete defensive system consisting of walls, watchtowers, gated passes, and beacon towers. After unifying China in the 3rd century BC, the Qin Dynasty sought to ward off southward incursions of the northern nomadic tribes known as the Xiongnu by linking up and fortifying sections of the defense walls which had been built by the feudal states of Yan, Zhao, and Qin during the Warring States Period that had just ended. Extending about 10, 000 li, the Great Wall wound its way from Lintao in the west (present-day Minxian County, Gansu Province) to Liaodong in the east (present-day Liaoning Province). Later dynasties including the Western and Eastern Han, the Northern Dynasties, and the Sui Dynasty all added sections to the Great Wall in places abutting on northern nomadic tribal areas. The Ming Dynasty was the last Chinese dynasty to engage in extensive construction of the Great Wall, which was rebuilt 18 times between the reigns of emperors Hongwu（1368-1398） and Wanli（1573-1620）. A great part of the Great Wall that still stands today is from the Ming Dynasty. The Ming Great Wall extends from the Jiayu Pass in the west to the Shanhai Pass in the east, with a total length of 8851.8 km. The Great Wall is the greatest defense work built in ancient China. Later the term a “great wall” or a “10, 000-li long great wall” often alludes to a person or a group of people who are a bulwark of the country. This term is also a symbol of fortitude and unity of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>In this expression, chang (常) means “ordinary,” “common,” or “normal,”together with “constant” and “unchanging.” Shi (识) here refers to what is known, understood, or experienced. General knowledge is the social consensus on the basic matters of everyday life and the commonly shared spiritual background that is unknowingly assumed by the community. During Japan’s Meiji Era, some Japanese scholars used 常识 to render the English phrase “common sense,”which spread to China at the end of the Qing Dynasty. Its meaning is opposite to that of “specialized knowledge.” Besides, “general knowledge” has moral implications, and has been upheld as the criterion or measure for telling right from wrong and good from evil, and for deciding whether to advance or retreat and making various choices. Today, the expression mainly refers to the basic knowledge a normal person should have. Its ancient and modern meanings are connected.
DETAILED>>The term describes a state of mind one achieves when appreciating an artwork, in which process one’s inner feelings interact freely and joyfully with nature. In particular, it describes one’s aesthetic experience of appreciating landscape paintings and landscape poems, when one feels absorbed with the natural scenes and images depicted. In his “On the Creation of Landscape Painting,” Zong Bing (375-443), painter of the Southern Dynasties, pointed out that by watching landscape paintings, one can appreciate the philosophy and pleasure which sages of past times drew from landscape. When doing so, one becomes oblivious to the external world and is totally free from worldly considerations, thus achieving full satisfaction of both body and mind. This term not only reveals the unique aesthetic function of landscape paintings, landscape poems, and natural beauty, but also demonstrates traditional literature and arts’ pursuit of harmony between nature and man and between mind and heart.
DETAILED>>Melancholy refers to an artistic style in poetic works in which sentiment expressed is subtle and the message is profound. Ancient Chinese poets represented by Du Fu（712-770）, keenly concerned about state affairs and people’s hardships, tried hard to understand what caused the rise and fall of a nation and sought ways to save the country and the people, but all to no avail. Such frustration and disappointment are thus reflected in their poems. With meticulously crafted structure, rhythm, and tones, their works give readers a special aesthetic appreciation of melody and infinite afterthought.
DETAILED>>A complete man refers to a person of sound moral integrity who also has command of various skills that in ancient times were needed to deal with social life. In the view of the ancient Chinese, a complete man did not just mean that a man reached adulthood. It also meant that a person had acquired sound morals and the skills required to adapt to society. A complete man needed to have wisdom, courage, and self-restraint and also to have mastered the skills necessary to appropriately deal with all types of matters in life, so that his words and deeds met the requirements of moral principles and justice.
DETAILED>>This refers to prejudice a person has developed towards a particular person or thing. The concept is from Zhuangzi. The author Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) believed that people will develop biased views about other people or things when they only look at other people or things from their own perspectives. Such bias caused by different points of view or standards can lead to disagreement or confrontation. People seldom realize that they have a biased mind. Thus Zhuangzi suggested that people need to be aware of their own biased mind and overcome it.
DETAILED>>The pursuit of moral principles in daily life should be true and sincere. “Being sincere in thought” is one of the “eight essential principles” from the philosophical text The Great Learning, the other seven being “studying things,” “acquiring knowledge,” “rectifying one’s mind,” “cultivating oneself,” “regulating one’s family well,” “governing the state properly,” and “bringing peace to all under heaven.” Those constitute important stages in the moral cultivation advocated by Confucian scholars. “Sincerity in thought” has as its preceding stage the “extension of knowledge.” One can only identify and follow the principle of “sincerity in thought” on the basis of understanding the moral principles in daily life. One’s true desire will then naturally reflect itself in one’s daily behavior. An individual’s moral conduct must stem from a genuine wish and must not just conform superficially to the moral principles without true intention of practicing them.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a comprehensive assessment of a scholar's abilities and literary talent. It was first put forward by Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties in his literary critique The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. Here cheng (程) means to assess; qi (器) refers to a person's moral conduct, ability to govern and literary talent. In Liu's view, some scholars since the Han and Wei dynasties had been scorned for their poor moral conduct or their inability to handle political or military affairs. This also harmed their literary reputation. Thus, he advised scholar-officials to not only possess writing skills but also excel morally and perform meritorious deeds for their country. He believed that a virtuous person would embrace noble ideals, be knowledgeable and insightful, be versatile, and fulfill worthy goals. He stressed the need to judge a scholar-official by his statements and moral character and his performance of meritorious service.
DETAILED>>This term is used in literary criticism to refer to a poetic style marked by the plainness and simplicity of wording and by a leisurely quietude. Despite its seeming sterility, such a style is full of life’s potentialities and possesses a profound appeal. This echoes the author’s mild and placid temperament, showing his mental attitude and spiritual realm of life after he has gone through life’s hardships and struggles – a natural expression of feeling which transcends all forms of verbal articulation and all rules of writing. As an aesthetic notion, quiet elegance has not only influenced artistic creation but also shaped the spiritual being of men of letters, helping to cultivate their outlook on life.
DETAILED>>Insect script was a special style of calligraphy current in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, also known as “bird-and-insect script” and “bird-and-insect seal script.” It was a variation of seal script. Characters written in this style resembled birds and insects in nature, hence the name. Insect script was cast or inscribed on weaponry, bells and cauldrons. For example, the 8-character inscription on the sword of Goujian, the king of the State of Yue, unearthed near Yichang in Hubei Province, adopted this very style. There were eight styles of calligraphy in use during the Qin Dynasty, among which insect script was in the fourth place. After he usurped the throne, Wang Mang (45 BC-AD23) ordered that insect script be recognized as one of the six official scripts and be used for writing on flags, tallies or seals.
DETAILED>>This term refers to elevation of moral character, a concept which is first mentioned in early Confucian classics such as The Analects and The Book of Changes. Confucianism placed great emphasis on human morals, believing that such morals should be constantly fostered and elevated; and this is the process of moral elevation. By steadfastly observing the moral principles of loyalty and good faith, people can improve their pronouncements and deeds, thereby elevating their moral cultivation. Moral elevation can only be achieved through sustained efforts.
DETAILED>>Chuci (楚辞 ode of Chu) was a poetic genre first attributed to Qu Yuan (340?-278? BC). It later became the title for the first anthology of poetry depicting the culture in south China. Chuci was so named because it made use of Chu (now Hunan and Hubei provinces) dialect, accent, and local special genres to describe the unique landscape, history, and folklore of the State of Chu. The term chuci first appeared in the early Western Han Dynasty, and later Liu Xiang (77?- 6 BC) compiled a literary collection including 16 pieces written by Qu Yuan, Song Yu, Huainan Xiaoshan (a group of authors of the Western Han Dynasty), Dongfang Shuo ( 154- 93 BC), Yan Ji, Wang Bao, and Liu Xiang. When Wang Yi later compiled Annotations on Odes of Chu, he added a work of his own to the collection, making it an anthology of 17 works. Through its distinctive genre and unique cultural elements, chuci reflected the special culture of the Chu region in southern China. As a genre, chuci is characterized by profound emotions, wild imagination, and rich allusions to the remote historical mythology from the dawn of Chinese history. It demonstrates an innovative and distinctive literary genre and spirit, standing with The Book of Songs as twin literary pinnacles. Later generations called this genre Chuci Style or Sao Style (Flowery Style), and its research chuci studies.
DETAILED>>Chuanqi (Legendary Story / Legendary Play)
This is a term for a literary form. It refers to three types of artistic works:
1) A type of short story in the Tang and Song dynasties that might be evolved from tales of the supernatural in the earlier Six Dynasties. Later its subjects widened to include social life, and stories about people and events. Chuan (传) means “legendary” and qi (奇) means “strange and unusual,” so the term originally means recounting tales of strange and extraordinary events that have been passed down by word of mouth. The work Legendary Stories by Pei Xing in the Tang Dynasty is probably the earliest work that uses the term. In the Song Dynasty, the Tang novel The Story of Yingying is considered a chuanqi, while the Yuan people called all Tang stories chuanqi of Tang. Song Dynasty chuanqi were more realistic and vernacular than those of the Tang.
2) Song-speech drama, Southern opera and Yuan zaju in the Song and Yuan dynasties, most of which were based on Tang stories.
3) Full-length operas in the Ming and Qing dynasties, which were based on the Southern Opera（Nanxi), and also included some Yuan zaju features. Typical works include The Story of Washing Gauze by Liang Chenyu (1519-1591), Peach Blossom Fan by Kong Shangren (1648-1718), The Palace of Eternal Life by Hong Sheng (1645-1704). The ancient style of chuanqi has evolved and been innovated over the centuries, both in story content and performance techniques. However, its main purpose is still to “tell stories of strange happenings and unusual people.”
This is the most important traditional festival for the Chinese nation and overseas Chinese. In the narrow sense, it is the first day of the Lunar New Year. In a broader sense, it refers to the festival that occurs between the 23rd day of the last lunar month (the day of Offerings to the Kitchen God) and the 15th day of the first lunar month (the Lantern Festival). In a modern sense, Spring Festival is a mixture of the beginning of the New Year and the Beginning of Spring on the lunar calendar. During Spring Festival, people pay tribute to deities and their ancestors, post auspicious couplets and New Year paintings, buy new year’s goods and put on new clothes, have a family reunion dinner, give children gift money, stay up the whole night on New Year's Eve to say goodbye to the departing year, set off firecrackers and visit relatives and friends. In terms of family relationships and religion, people make sacrifices to ancestors and deities for the protection of their family members. In addition, Spring Festival reflects the importance Chinese people attach to family reunion, harmony within a family and kinship. When it comes to the Chinese people’s sense of life and sense of time, they not only bid farewell to the departing year and express their welcome to the new year, they also express their expectation for a better future. Through the influence of Chinese culture, some of China’s neighboring countries also celebrate Spring Festival.
DETAILED>>The Spring and Autumn Annals is one of the Confucian classics, believed to have been compiled by Confucius（551-479 BC） based on the chronicles of the State of Lu. The book covers a period of 242 years from the first year of the reign of Duke Yin of Lu (722 BC) to the 14th year of the reign of Duke Ai (481 BC). The book was China’s first chronological history, and its title has come to mean all chronological histories. Its records of events are brief and its style is concise. Later Confucian scholars regarded the book as having “subtle words with profound meanings,” and described its implied and indirect style of writing, which makes both positive and negative criticism, as “the style of The Spring and Autumn Annals .” Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, Gongyang’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, and Guliang’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, together known as the “Three Commentaries,” are explications of this work. (Gongyang’s and Guliang’s commentaries explain the reasoning in the book, while Zuo’s commentary records historical events of this period but does not interpret The Spring and Autumn Annals. ) “Spring and Autumn” also refers to the Spring and Autumn Period, an era named after The Spring and Autumn Annals. There are two views about the period it spans: One is the period covered in the Annals, the other is the period from 770 BC, when King Ping of Zhou moved his capital from near present-day Xi’an in the west to present-day Luoyang in the east, until the year of 476 BC.
DETAILED>>This term refers to natural, unadorned beauty. “Pure” means untainted, unadulterated or containing no impurity. Su (素) originally means “undyed raw silk.” Later it came to mean“ the quality of being white, authentic, unspoiled or undecorated.” Daoist thought, represented by Laozi and Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC), held that Dao is the ultimate origin of beauty in everything. Dao is natural, unassertive, simple and unadorned. Thus Daoists consider being natural, unadorned and pure as the highest form of beauty. Ancient thinkers believe that “pure and unadorned” is an authentic state of being, which retains its holistic true status free from external objects. Even if it mixes with the latter, it keeps itself natural and its core essence unimpaired. This idea extensively influenced the writing style and aesthetic pursuit of ancient Chinese literature and art. Plain and quiet poetry and plain and natural painting were upheld in ancient China, which reflect the aesthetic pursuit of the pure and unadorned.
DETAILED>>This term has a two-fold meaning. First, it refers to any work that offers commentaries on ci poets, poems, schools of ci poetry, the gist of a ci poem and textual criticisms. This type of work is a constituent part of scholarly inquiry into classical Chinese poetry. Criticism on ci poetry, with relatively long lines interspersed with shorter ones, are derived from criticism on the more usual type of classic Chinese poetry with a fixed number of characters to a line. They proliferated in the Northern Song Dynasty and matured in the Southern Song Dynasty. Famed works of ci poetry appreciation include Remarks on Ci Poetry from White Rain Studio by Chen Tingzhuo (1853-1892) and Poetic Remarks in the Human World by Wang Guowei (1877-1927), both from the Qing Dynasty. The latter work, written after Wang Guowei was influenced by Western aesthetic theories, and fusing Chinese and Western aesthetic thoughts together, was a criticism work on Chinese ci poets and ci poems made from a brand-new perspective. Although superficially it imitates the traditional way of offering commentaries on shi poetry and ci poetry, it in fact already attempts to construct a theoretic system. It has remained the most influential work of literary criticism since the late-Qing period.
Second, the term cihua also refers to an art of theatrical performance combining narratives and songs popular in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, in which the ci part is the singing of rhymed verse. As in Tales of Prince Qin of the Great Tang Dynasty, the performance intersperses singing with narrative, and verse with prose. It was developed from the performance of story-telling with speech and song of the Song Dynasty. After the mid-Ming Dynasty, such performances started to adopt two new terms: tanci (弹词), or story-telling with the accompaniment of musical instruments such as the Chinese lute, and guci (鼓词), or story-telling aided by a drum and clapper. Still later, these two new terms superseded the old. From the last years of the Ming to the first years of the Qing, this term was sometimes also used to refer to a popular novel with each chapter headed by a couplet giving the gist of its content which was interspersed with beautiful verse, for example Tales of the Golden Lotus.
Ci (词 a form of poetry with long or short verses which can be set to music and sung) and qu (曲 a form of rhyming compositions which can be set to music and sung) are a combined appellation for two kinds of literary styles. In Complete Library of the Four Branches of Literature, they are listed at the very end of the “Collections” section (Qu is a sub-genre and is not listed in the table of contents). This is because according to the literary views of ancient scholars, poetry and essays were the only accepted tradition to express important ideas. To write in the form of ci (lyric) and qu (melody) was only seen as a minor skill showing a person’s talent. Sometimes, the combined appellation ciqu also refers to traditional opera and genres of performances featuring speaking and singing.
DETAILED>>“Unrestricted name” is a term of classification used by the Mohist School. It is a general name for ordinary things. The Mohists stressed the importance of properly naming things in different ways to reflect their real nature. They had three ways of naming things: unrestricted, classified, and private. “Unrestricted name” is most general, such as the name of wu (物thing). Wu is used to refer to all objects.
DETAILED>>Dagu (大故) refers to a necessary and sufficient cause or condition. The Mohists categorized the causes of things being so into dagu (major cause) and xiaogu (小故minor cause). Dagu inevitably leads to the corresponding consequence, while its absence inevitably leads not to the consequence. To put it simply, dagu must be present, and its presence is enough for the occurrence of events.
DETAILED>>This term means fundamental principles and standards of behavior. In comparison with minor principles, major principles are about the fundamental duties borne by people of different social status and how they should be performed; they are standards of conduct that people must observe. In ethical human relations, people may commit mistakes, but generally they will not defy major principles. If they should lose control of themselves, it may be the result of failing to withstand great pressure or to resist great temptation. Therefore, remaining true to major principles becomes a major challenge.
The earliest meaning of this term, in contrast with the term petty man, referred to a ruler or people with high social standing. Later, moral character and ethical behavior were used to differentiate between a man of virtue and a petty man. Scholars of different schools have different understanding and standards for a man of virtue. Confucian scholars believed that such a person should observe proper rules of moral conduct, be able to resist external temptations, and thedesire to seek material gain.Daoists, however, held that a man of virtue should follow the rule of non-action, refuse to be bound by social conventions and act according to the highest standards of Dao.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the time of peace and prosperity envisioned by Confucian scholars when all the people under heaven are one family, equal, friendly, and helpful to each other (as opposed to xiaokang [小康] – moderate prosperity). Confucianism takes universal harmony as the supreme stage of the development of the human society, somewhat similar to the idea of utopia in the West. Its main features are: All power and wealth belong to the whole of society; all people are equal and live and work in peace and contentment; everyone is cared for by society; everything is used to its fullest and everyone works to his maximum potential. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, the term referred to the concepts of socialism, communism, or cosmopolitanism that had been introduced to China from the West.
DETAILED>>The concept means different things in different contexts. In terms of institutions of learning, it refers to the institution of highest learning, the imperial academy, established by the state, which is different from local schools. When it comes to content of learning, it refers to what a complete man should learn, namely, general rules and principles on governance and human relationship, which are different from that of xiaoxue (小学 Little Learning), namely, learning of words and specific rites or skills. In terms of objective, great learning aims to help students develop sound personality and moral integrity and thus make them qualified for exercising governance.
DETAILED>>This refers to the fundamental oracular calculation. The term “fundamental calculation,” which is from The Book of Changes, refers to the procedure for creating hexagrams by using fifty yarrow stalks. The diviner would repeatedly combine and separate groups of yarrow stalks according to a set of rules. The changes in the numbers of the stalks were used to ascertain the yin and yang, namely, the negative and positive, characteristics of each trigram, and the trigrams were in turn used to form a hexagram. This method of calculation was believed to represent the process through which everything was created and evolved, and it was used to explore and understand the rules which govern changes and their underlying trends.
DETAILED>>Maximal functioning means that all kinds of appearances of Dao in the external world are the greatest manifestation and functioning of Dao. Daoist scholars believe that the internal Dao determines the basis for changes in the external world, and that all kinds of forms in the objective world derive from the active, innate nature of Dao, the result of unity of substance and function. In “Twenty- four Styles of Poetry,” Sikong Tu（837-908）, a literary critic in the Tang Dynasty, made this notion a term of literary criticism to highlight the view that the rich and colorful imagery in poetry represents unity of the internal spirit of the work and its external shape. In poetry writing and appreciation, one should focus on the harmony between the appearance and the essence.
DETAILED>>The greater seal script is a form in the evolution of Chinese characters. Standing in contrast to the lesser seal script, it has two meanings. The narrow meaning specifically refers to the pre-Qin script engraved on stones (zhouwen籀文), modeled after stone-drum script in the Kingdom of Qin during the Warring States Period. It features heavy strokes, duplicated structures and an overall pattern more regular and standard than inscriptions of earlier times on bronze objects. The broader meaning refers to all kinds of stone-engraved characters including inscriptions on bronze ware, greater seal script and the stone script of all kingdoms in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. It was replaced by the lesser seal script after the Kingdom of Qin unified China.
DETAILED>>Dan (丹 cinnabar) and qing (青 cyan) were two colors frequently applied in traditional Chinese painting. Cinnabar is red and cyan is bluish green. In early times, Chinese paintings often used minerals such as cinnabar and cyan to draw lines or fill in colors. Hence the term danqing (丹青) made from the combination of dan and qing could stand for painting in general. Representative works of this kind included silk paintings unearthed at Tomb No.1 of Mawangdui of the Han Dynasty as well as the Dunhuang frescoes of the Northern Wei period and the Sui and Tang dynasties. Later, colors made from cinnabar and cyan were gradually replaced by ink and wash. Partly because of their bright, contrastive colors, and partly because mineral colors do not deteriorate appreciably over time, people used red-character books to record merits and bluish-green-character books to record historical events. Historians often use danqing to refer to a man’s outstanding, indelible work that deserves to be put down in history.
DETAILED>>This term was first used to mean to lead a quiet, peaceful life with few worldly desires. Daoism advocates blandness, believing that lack of flavor is the best possible flavor. It was highly influential in the creation of the aesthetic concept of blandness and quiet living. Beginning in the Wei and Jin dynasties, the term was used in aesthetics, referring to a peaceful and mild artistic beauty and style, as opposed to rich, loud and splendid beauty. The term does not mean insipid with no taste at all； what it refers to is a purified, refined, quiet and ethereal taste, a mild yet profound tone and flavor.
DETAILED>>Dangran (当然), literally meaning “should be so,” is often used to describe the fact that something should exist or work in a specific manner, or the fact that someone should behave in a certain way. It implies some degree of legitimacy and reasonableness, indicating that the functioning of things and the conduct of people should adhere to legitimate rules and reasonable manners. The Song Dynasty scholar Zhu Xi (1130-1200) believed that these rules come from and embody tianli (天理the natural principles). Therefore, exploring the rules of dangran is the primary focus of qiongli (穷理exhausting principles).
DETAILED>>The expression was first used in poetry criticism to mean that a poem fully met poetic stylistic standards. It later became an important term in Chinese classical operatic theory. It has two meanings. One is that the language used by a character in a play is simple, natural, easy to understand, and appropriate for the character. The other is that characters and plot of the play are true to life with a strong artistic attraction. In Ming-dynasty operatic theory, “professionalism” and “being true to life” are often used together to describe outstanding opera works.
DETAILED>>This concept means generally applicable principles and tangible concrete objects, which are an important pair of concepts in ancient Chinese philosophy. Dao is invisible, concealed and metaphysical, while objects are tangible, visible and physical. The former represents unity of things, while the latter demonstrates diversity of things. However, the two are not diametrically opposed to each other. Rather, they are inherently in unity in that the former is the abstraction of the latter, while the latter is the concrete manifestation of the former, and the two have a relationship of dialectical unity.
DETAILED>>Literally, this term means pivot of Dao. It first appeared in Zhuangzi written by the ancient Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC). It is pointed out in Zhuangzi that people tend to look at others from their own perspectives or standards, but such different views or standards often give rise to confrontation and disagreement. Therefore, Zhuangzi maintained that people should transcend their own views and go beyond their own standards when viewing other people or things, thus avoiding or resolving conflicts or disputes. By taking this key approach to others and things, one can gain a true understanding of Dao.
DETAILED>>The “moral mind” refers to people’s awareness of moral principles. It is set in contrast to the “human heart,” and appears in classics such as the “Old Text” version of The Book of History, and Xunzi. Confucian scholars in the Song Dynasty attached great importance to both terms and made interpretations and expositions about them. They believed that the conscious mind, or heart, involved two aspects: one, conscious of moral principles, was daoxin, or the “moral mind”; the other, consumed with human desires aroused by the sensory organs such as eyes and ears, was called renxin，or the “human heart.” The consciousness of moral principles in the “moral mind” comes from innate human nature working in agreement with heavenly principles, but it is elusive. It needs to be allowed full play so that the excessive desires of the “human heart” can be held in check.
DETAILED>>This term refers to maintaining moral integrity. It comes from the book Xunzi. Xunzi (313?-238 BC) believed that one could improve his moral cultivation through constant study. However, the impact of external factors could cause moral lapse. Hence Xunzi attached great importance to maintaining moral integrity. This means that one should always be guided by the norms of propriety in his thoughts, statements and acts, and should be unaffected by any external factors. Maintaining moral integrity is the basis for refining one’s character.
DETAILED>>This refers to people’s innate moral nature. The term first appeared in The Book of Rites. Ancient Chinese people widely believed that inborn human nature had feelings and a craving for knowledge of the outside world. However, they had different views as to whether morals were included in innate human nature. The majority of Confucian scholars held that human nature had in itself a basic sense of benevolence, righteousness, rites and wisdom, and together they constituted the virtuous nature. Still these scholars maintained that self-cultivation was required for such nature to develop into conscious benevolence.
DETAILED>>Music conforming to virtue reflects the standard of social morality and the high levels of people’s moral character. It is thus the ideal type of music for music education upheld by Confucianism. When the state was stable and orderly, sages established six different rhythms of huangzhong (黄钟), taicu (太簇), guxian (姑洗), ruibin (蕤宾), yize (夷则), and wuyi (无射), and modulated the arrangement and ratio of musical notes on the five-tone scale of gong (宫),shang (商), jue (角), zhi (徵), and yu (羽) (roughly corresponding to 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 in the numbered musical notation), representing music conforming to virtue. Such music epitomized the court hymns and eulogies. Morality is believed to be the root of humanity, and music conforming to virtue educates and edifies the populace, adjusting their behavior to the heavenly way and enhancing their moral integrity. One who has entered the realm of virtue experiences harmony between heaven and earth, enjoys inner peace, which thereby promotes an ethically harmonious society on all fronts.
DETAILED>>The way of earth refers to the law by which the earth and all things on it exist and undergo change. The ancient Chinese believed in the oneness of the heaven, earth, and human being. Thus they associated the way of earth with the way of heaven and the way of man. They also considered that the way of heaven and the way of earth establish the order of human relationships and the norms of human affairs. However, the ancients did not agree on their conception of the way of earth. According to some philosophers, the earth and all things on it follow a law that is different from the way of heaven, while others believed the law governing the earth and all things on it is the same as the way of heaven in essence but different in manifestation.
DETAILED>>This term means the laws that determine the physical features of plains, mountains and rivers. The term is from The Book of Changes, and it means that the uneven topography of the land, and the direction of rivers and mountains are all determined by certain constant laws. The ancient Chinese believed that both human relationships and all things in the universe are governed by the same laws, and so by observing and following these laws, people can establish social order. In later ages, the term came to cover production, transportation, human settlement and the economic activities affected by the natural environment.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a type of writing that is classically elegant. Originally, it meant that a piece of writing should be modeled on ancient classics, express pure and noble ideas, and follow classical literary styles by using Confucian doctrines for aesthetic guidance. Later, the term shifted to emphasize elegant diction and style that were free from vulgarity and frivolity. Later still, it gradually incorporated Daoist aesthetic views, suggesting natural tranquility and spiritual transcendence. For example, in “Twenty-four Styles of Poetry,” Sikong Tu （837-908）described classical elegance as being “as quiet as falling flower petals and as modest as unassuming daisies,” which is close to the simple, relaxed, and natural style advocated by Daoist scholars.
DETAILED>>The term refers to two fundamental states in the existence of things, namely, movement and stillness. These two kinds of states are antithetic, but they also rely on each other and change into each other. Ancient Chinese had different views about the constant or the intrinsic state of the existence of things. Confucian scholars believed that “movement” was the fundamental state of existence of things, and that all things under heaven and on earth were in perpetual change and motion. Daoist scholars held that concrete things in motion were originally still, and that they would eventually return to stillness. Buddhists maintained that things were inherently all still and that the movements and changes people saw were just illusionary.
DETAILED>>The term indicates that all things in heaven and on earth do not depend on external forces. Rather, they take shape and change by themselves independently. It was put forward by Guo Xiang (?-312) in his Annotations on Zhuangzi. Specifically, the term contains three meanings. Firstly, all things in heaven and on earth form and change naturally. Secondly, all things in heaven and on earth form and change independent of one another. Thirdly, all things in heaven and on earth form and change suddenly, without any reason or purpose. The concept of self-driven development denies the existence of a creator. At the same time, it also denies that one thing causes the occurrence and existence of another. However, according to this concept, all things in the universe, naturally formed, co-exist in harmony.
DETAILED>>In this context, two handles mean a sovereign ruler has the power to both confer rewards and mete out punishments. Both are basic ways of governance and have been subjects of discussion in different schools of thought. Ancient scholar Hanfeizi (280?-233 BC) attached great importance to the role of rewards and punishments in governance, believing that both should be given according to the law. One who abode by the law should be offered rewards and one who broke the law should be given punishment. This would make people behave in accordance with the law as they love rewards and fear punishment. He also emphasized that a sovereign should exercise his power in such a way so that rewards and punishments were given exactly as the law requires and that such power was not abused as a tool to seek personal gain.
DETAILED>>Satya means unfailing truth in Sanskrit. Satyadvaya refers to truth at two levels: paramārtha-satya (the ultimate truth), which is based on the absolute nature, and saṁvṛiti-satya (the conventional truth), based on worldly phenomena. This division of truth according to the level of cognition originates in the canonical Abhidharma works, where names, words, appearances, and phenomena belong to the worldly realm, and real dharmas belong to the absolute realm. In the classics of Mahayana Buddhism, satyadvaya is widely adapted into the theory that all things, empty in nature, appear as complicated phenomena. (In other words, inherent emptiness appears as bhava, or worldly existence.) Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way interprets satyadvaya in another way. It argues, “The Buddhas teach the dharma to all sentient beings according to satyadvaya.” The conventional satya (truth) refers to all names, words, expressions, and interpretations of worldly phenomena, including the teachings of the Buddha, while the ultimate satya refers to the reality beyond word and appearance. This theory influenced a number of Buddhist schools. In the Sui Dynasty, Shi Jizang (549–623), the founder of the Three-treatise School, developed the theory into “the four levels of satyadvaya.” Shi Zhiyi (538–597), the founder of the Tiantai School, proposed a theory of “the three truths” by incorporating the middle-way truth to the existing theory of the empty truth (or the ultimate truth) and the false truth (or the conventional truth).
DETAILED>>Dharmakāya refers to the corpus of the Buddha’s teachings. The word shen (身 body) means
collection in this context. The multifaceted nature of the Buddha inspires the idea
of “two bodies,” “three bodies,” and even “ten bodies.” Among them, rūpakāya (the body of form or the
begotten body) refers to the physical dimension of the Buddha, which features
earthliness; dharmakāya (the body of
dharma) refers to the collection of invisible wisdom, highlighting the inherent
nature of the Buddha; and nirmāṇakāya (the
body of transformation) refers to the doubles of the Buddha who is able to
teach the dharma by all means to all sentient beings. Buddhist interpretations on dharmakāya vary from school to school,
but all of them emphasize its perfect purity and endless functions.
Rule by law, as opposed to rule by man, calls for ruling a state and its people by the ruler through enacting and strictly enforcing laws and regulations. It is an important political thought of the Legalist scholars in the pre-Qin period. Rule by law meted out well-defined rewards and punishments, but tended to be excessively severe and rigid in enforcement. From the Han Dynasty all the way to the Qing Dynasty, rule by law and rule by man were exercised by various dynasties, mostly in combination. With the spread of Western thoughts to China in more recent times, the concept of “rule by law” acquired new implications, evolving into one of “rule of law.”
DETAILED>>In Buddhism, "affliction" refers to the confused or upset state of mind owing to the turbulence in one's physical or mental being. It is actually a self-imposed bondage incurred by misunderstanding. A common man, due to his ignorance, takes his self as real and then attaches to things (to fulfill his own desires). The desires drive many kinds of conduct, which then result in karma and the involvement in the cycle of rebirth. In this sense, affliction is essentially human bondage. There are three basic kinds of afflictions: greed, resentment, and ignorance, also known collectively as "the three poisons". In Buddhism, there is a meticulous classification of various afflictions, for it is believed that only by careful observation and by identifying each sort could one release himself from such bondages.
On the semantic level, fan’ai (泛爱), like the term bo’ai (博爱), means a broad love that extends to all. However, in the history of Chinese thought, it has been used with a different connotation: while bo’ai generally suggests “love of all human beings,” fan’ai infers “love of all humans as well as all things.” It means the same as what Mencius（372?-289 BC） advocated that men of virtue should love others and treasure everything on earth, and what Zhang Zai （1020-1077）proposed that all people are brothers and sisters, and all things are companions.
DETAILED>>Originally, this referred to the chanting of Buddha’s or a bodhisattva’s virtues in the form of poems and verses by Buddhist monks, and now it refers to their chanting of Buddha and Buddhist scriptures during pujas. Pāthaka means“to stop”or“to praise.” Brāhma pāthaka is a form of religious language imbued with a beautiful undulating melody and a complete structure of chanting, including hymns, verses, mantras, and texts. Ancient Indian Buddhism was introduced to China during the Eastern Han Dynasty, and gradually fused with Chinese indigenous thought and culture to form Chinese Buddhism. The original chanting form of ancient Indian Buddhism was also gradually adapted to the Chinese context and fused with native Chinese tunes to form brāhma pāthaka with Chinese characteristics, which became an important part of traditional Chinese music. The landmark event of its adaption to the Chinese context was the creation of the brāhma pāthaka by Cao Zhi (192-232) during his trip to Yushan (in present-day Dong’e, Shandong Province), which gave Chinese Buddhist chanting a native tune. Brāhma pāthaka was later applied by monks and lay people in the Western and Eastern Jin dynasties and the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and has evolved into the art of Chinese brāhma pāthaka, which is still in active use in Buddhist pujas in China today.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to appropriate skilful means or methods. “Expediency” is often used together with “ingenuity” (kauśalya). It refers to the Buddha’s or to a bodhisattva’s preaching adapting to the circumstances, in order to convert beings. He used adroit words and terms and narrative techniques, so as to allow listeners of different backgrounds all understand and comprehend it and grasp the implied abstruse meaning. The concept of “expediency” is a key to the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) sect of Buddhism. It emphasizes that all verbal expressions, including the Buddha’s teaching, depend on the concept of the term and appearance. They cannot obtain the highest level. In a certain sense they are all expedient means, like a finger pointing at the moon. That is why they should not be literally interpreted. One should not cling to them.
“Squareness,” used in collocation with “roundness,” refers to the shapes and properties of things, or sometimes to the methods and rules of making things square or round. Ancient Chinese believed that heaven is round and earth is square. Heaven revolves, accommodates, and harmonizes. Earth, in contrast, is still, firm, and straightforward. They argued that humans should conduct themselves in imitation of the ways heaven and earth operate, and be “round” on the outside and “square” within, meaning that people should be suitably flexible but firm on issues of principle. In artistic and literary creation, especially in calligraphic creations, ancient Chinese held that regular script should be “square” whereas cursive script should be “round.” However, no matter which type of script is adopted, squareness and roundness should be applied in harmony with each other.
DETAILED>>Opposition to unjust warfare is one of the basic concepts in the Mohist School of thought. It regards immoral and aggressive wars as acutely harmful to society. Not only does the country being attacked suffer great damage, the people of the country that starts the war also suffer serious casualties and property losses. Therefore, Mohists held that unjust wars should be prohibited. They took specific measures to prevent aggressive wars between nations, and conducted research into defensive tactics and armaments.
DETAILED>>This concept is advocated by the Mohist school active during the Warring States Period. Mozi (468?-376 BC) believes a ruler should promote all that is beneficial, and eliminate all that is harmful. He stood in opposition to the Confucian idea of ruling a country through ritual propriety, and held that the ruling class’ abandonment to pleasure and neglect of state business was bringing great harm to society. According to him, the manufacture of musical instruments involves extracting much wealth from ordinary people, yet instruments thus produced cannot be used by them or serve to relieve their suffering. Music itself also hinders normal productive activities, as once people become obsessed with music, they may ignore their proper duties. Therefore, Mozi proposed that music should be banned. From the perspective of societal benefit, he opposed the Confucian idea of educating the masses through music. This argument is not without merit, but shows an element of over-correction, which manifests a narrow utilitarian view of arts and literature.
DETAILED>>A belief that events are not predetermined and a denial of fate is a basic component of Mohist thought. Mozi (468?-376 BC) proposed that poverty and turmoil are brought about by our own acts rather than predetermined by fate. Blaming human affairs on fate is nothing other than relieving actors of responsibility for their actions and will only bring chaos to the state and poverty to the people. Only by embracing ethical principles such as impartial love and by our own efforts, can we gain practical benefits.
DETAILED>>Plump beauty is a style prevalent in ancient Chinese literature and art. "Plump" here suggests abundance, richness and fullness. In calligraphic aesthetics, it refers to a state of chubbiness, maturity and lushness. When used in poetic creation, "plump" is associated with a poem's richness in nuance and enduring appeal. However, plump beauty would not work alone; it has to be combined with or complemented by leanness. Only thus can the dual character of ancient Chinese poetry and artistic aesthetics be fully expressed. The Northern Song writer Su Shi (1037-1101) highly lauded the artistic features of Tao Yuanming's (365 or 372 or 376-427) poetry by saying that "it is magnificently beautiful and richly varied under the surface of simplicity."
DETAILED>>This term refers to powerful expressiveness and artistic impact that come from a literary work’s purity of thoughts and emotions, as well as from its meticulously crafted structure. Despite some difference in interpreting the term, people tend to agree that fenggu (风骨) can be understood as being lucid and fresh in language while sturdy in structure. Feng (风) means “style,” which emphasizes that a literary work should be based on pure thoughts, vivid impressions, and rich emotions so as to produce an effect of powerful expressiveness. Gu (骨) means “bones” or proper structure, figuratively. It stresses the impact of structure and sentence order, requiring a piece of writing to be robust, vigorous, profound, and yet succinct. If a piece of work is wordy and overly rhetorical but weak in content, then it lacks the impact of a “proper structure,” no matter how flowery its expressions are. If such writing is awkward in delivery and has no emotions and vitality, then it lacks expressiveness in “style.” Fenggu does not preclude, but rather combines with linguistic elegance in order to create a piece of good work. Good command of fenggu depends on the personality and dispositions of the author. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie （465？-520? or 532?）of the Southern Dynasties devoted a chapter to the discussion of fenggu, which is the first essay on writing style in the history of classical Chinese literary criticism.
DETAILED>>This refers to the effect a ruler’s virtuous behavior has on his subjects, in the way the wind influences the myriad things. Moral cultivation is an important part of education. The Confucian view is that a ruler should set an example to the people, influencing them unobtrusively. If he is moral and ethical in conduct, the people will follow his example and abide by the rites and moral standards willingly without being under duress. The term also refers to the prevailing social mores in a country shaped by a ruler's influence.
Originally, this term meant to educate and influence people. Later, it came to refer to the function of shaping customary social practices, namely, the educational role of literary and artistic works in changing social behaviors and popular culture. Originating from “Introductions to Mao’s Version of The Book of Songs,” the term is one of the important concepts of the Confucian school on the function of the arts. It believes that poetry and music have a role to play in shaping people’s mind, reflecting the notion that rulers can educate and influence the general public by imparting a particular ideology in a top-down fashion, thereby achieving the desired effect of cultivating the general culture. The influence of this concept is far-reaching； it has impacted much of artistic creation in China, all the way from the poetry and music of the pre-Qin period to literary and artistic works in the modern times. It not only reflects the Confucian view on moral education, but also imparts a sense of social responsibility on writers and artists. However, if an artistic work overemphasizes moral cultivation, it runs the risk of placing ideology before artistic form, thus compromising its aesthetic value. The right way is to embed teaching in entertainment and let a literary or artistic work exert its influence on social mentality in a subtle and imperceptible way.
DETAILED>>The term refers to vim and vigor found in a great work of art. It first emerged among comments on famed persons in the Wei and Jin period. Later, it was brought into the field of artistic criticism. The Tang Dynasty’s theory on calligraphy adopted the term to describe the artistic features of a calligraphic work. In his essay titled “Subsequent Commentaries on Calligraphy,” Jiang Kui (1155?-1209) of the Song Dynasty further argued, on the basis of the concept of “vim and vigor,” that the merit of a calligraphic work is jointly determined by the calligrapher’s moral character, origin of his style, skill, innovation and the kind of brush and paper he uses. The term gained its popularity when Ming Dynasty’s Mao Kun (1512-1601) used it in his critical essays. He praised Records of the Historian as its classic example and spoke highly of Ouyang Xiu’s (1007-1072) essays for their vim and vigor. His criterion was to see whether a smooth flow of narration was ensured and complicated nuances of feeling admirably expressed in an essay.
The other meaning of this term is an ode composed to urge the emperor to hold such a sacrificial ceremony or to record its actual process if a sacrificial ceremony was held to extol his achievements. Such an ode was first written by Sima Xiangru (179?-118 BC) of the Western Han Dynasty. Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties held that the ode, as a declaration of royal achievement in its era, should be solemn, grand, factual, eloquent and graceful. To extol an emperor's greatness and the miraculous power of heaven and earth, the author should select old yet lucid words from the classics, or use new words rich in implication. He should give free rein to his imagination. Sacrificial odes later became standard commemorative speeches. Liu Xie's requirements, when observed, may help boost the image or morale of a company, a governmental or cultural institution, a region or even the whole country. Good ceremonial speeches, poems or essays can become representative writings of a particular era.
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In feudalism, the lord granted titles of nobility, fiefs, and people to his relatives and officials and allowed them to establish dukedoms. A fief was smaller than the territory under the direct control of the lord. While obeying the rule of the lord, a dukedom enjoyed a high degree of autonomy in its military and administrative affairs. Dukedoms checked each other in the protection of the lord. A dukedom might be passed down genetically upon the approval of the lord and was required to pay tribute to him. As a political system, feudalism is believed to have started in the era of the legendary Yellow Emperor, and became established in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Feudalism was akin to the patriarchal clan system based on blood ties and gave rise to a hierarchy system. After the first emperor of Qin（259-210 BC）
reunified China, he abolished feudalism in favor of the system of prefectures and counties. From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, centralized government or imperial autocracy was dominant in China, rendering feudalism, which existed overtly or covertly, supplementary.
This term refers to the proper way of appreciating classic Chinese poetry in ancient times. Specifically, when reading a poem aloud，it was supposed to intone a poem with cadence; namely, by following a pattern of rising and falling tones with pauses in between. Through repeated chanting and recitals, they captured the rhythm, rhyme, hidden meaning and sentiment of the poem and finally understood the core message conveyed by the author. On that basis, they might even be able to form an interpretation of their own. Chanting played a vital role in poetic appreciation largely due to the musicality of classic Chinese poetry. Readers not only read cadence but sang melodiously as well.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the use of allegories to convey popular mood and public opinion and make critical comments on state affairs to the ruler in a tactful manner in the hope to persuade him to correct wrong policies. Feng (讽) represents making critical but persuasive comments subtly through poetry or prose; yu (喻) means delivering an explicit message. Such literary writing is intended to be both critical and persuasive; and it has two integral aspects, namely, a subtle literary way of expression as required by feng, and its social function of sending explicit messages to the ruler as required. The theory of subtle admonition was advocated by scholars of the Han Dynasty based on their interpretation of The Book of Songs. Confucian scholars from then on promoted the use of subtle admonition to influence decision-making of the ruler and social mores in a literary way. Bai Juyi（772-846）, a poet of the Tang Dynasty, wrote many such poems, further reinforcing the social function of poetry and advancing this literary tradition, which had great impact on literary creation of later generations.
DETAILED>>Fenghuang (凤凰 phoenix) is a legendary divine bird and the king of all birds. Feng (凤) is male, and huang (凰) is female. Beginning in the Qin and Han dynasties, emperors were referred to as long (龙dragons) while queens and royal concubines were called feng (凤phoenix), so fenghuang came to mean women only. The description of the phoenix as a species and its image changed over the centuries, eventually making it a divine bird with both bird and animal features. For example, in Guo Pu’s Commentaries on Er Ya, the phoenix is described as “a colorful six-chi-tall bird with a chicken’s head, a swallow’s jaw, a snake’s neck, a turtle’s back, and a fish’s tail.” In the very early days, the phoenix was probably just a primitive tribal totem. Later, however, it became a symbol of peace and prosperity. It was also used to bless marriages, as it represents nobleness, harmony, auspiciousness, and happiness. Like the dragon, the phoenix is an important cultural symbol of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>Buddha-nature is a latent seed or potentiality inherent to the sentient beings that may, once matured, result in the achievement of Buddhahood. Buddha-nature, or Buddha element, is universally present in all sentient beings, thanks to which, those who can withstand the difficult engagement of (Buddhist) practice throughout their lives in samsara, will finally attain the goal of enlightenment. Conceptually, it has a close affinity with another term tathāgatagarbha (literally the womb of the Tathagata), which emphasizes the nature of purity as being innate in the minds of all sentient beings and capable of being manifested under proper circumstances.
DETAILED>>The term originally referred to shield and fortress, but was later used to mean dukes and princes, and then defenders of a regime, theory or proposition. Gan (干shield), a defensive weapon in old days, is used to mean to defend, while cheng (城) means inner and outer city walls or a fortress, a structure for defensive purposes. Dukes and princes were likened to gancheng (干城), in contrast with chongcheng (崇城), which means supreme city, referring to the Son of Heaven and indicating his supreme position. It is meant that dukes and princes, likened to shield and fortress, had the responsibilities to defend the Son of Heaven. Hence, dukes and princes must obey orders from the Son of Heaven. As it has evolved over time, the term generally referred to loyal and efficient defenders. Interestingly, it came to mean that not only people of lower ranks defend their superiors, but also people of high positions defend their subordinates.
DETAILED>>A person’s creative impulse is triggered by one or more externalities, and after conceptualization and artistic treatment, this results in a work of art. Such externalities include both natural sights and scenes from life which can be directly sensed. Ancient Chinese believed that creation resulted from externalities which evoked a desire to create, and that works of art and literature were the result of combining externalities with subjective thinking. This term emphasizes the fundamental idea that artistic creation is rooted in life.
DETAILED>>Two opposing properties or qualities that objects and human beings possess. The term has three different meanings. First, when describing natural or manmade objects, gang (刚) means hard and rou (柔) means soft. Second, when describing human qualities, gang means strong and determined, while rou means gentle and modest. Third, when describing a style of governance or law enforcement, gang means stern and rou means lenient. Gang and rou are one of the manifestations of yin and yang. Their mutual opposition and accommodation are the basic causes of change, and they must achieve a certain balance within any object or action. Too much of either is inappropriate and dangerous.
DETAILED>>The first of these two Chinese characters means firm and unyielding； the second one means resolute and decisive. As people often come under undue influences that affect their observance of moral standards, this term emphasizes the need to resist such influences by adhering to ethical rules in their conduct. People should neither succumb to self-driven motives, nor yield to violence and coercion. Confucian scholars regarded firmness and resolution as an important virtue which is close to benevolence.
This term describes the quality of loftiness or primitive simplicity, and is used primarily in literary criticism to refer to an ancient nobility, an aspiration or sentiment, or an artistic style of historical gravity. “Loftiness” here suggests transcending the limitation of space, not being tied down by concrete objects, thoughts, moods or wishes and conveys a sense of staying aloof from current affairs and worldly conventions. “Primitive simplicity” here means breaking loose from the confinement of time and traveling back to the remote past. It also implies an unadorned antiquity or austere dignity. By combining these two concepts, the term aims to weaken the imprint of its time and to transcend the bounds of reality, reaching for a normally unattainable realm linking the present to the past. Sometimes, this term is also used to refer to an elevated state of being attained by noble-minded persons.
DETAILED>>The term means taking power from a ruler. Ge (革) means to change or remove. Ming (命) first referred to the mandate of heaven and later came to mean a ruler’s decrees and his mandate to rule. Changing the mandate usually involves replacing a ruler and a change of dynasty, in other words, overthrowing an old regime and establishing a new one. People in ancient China believed that a ruler’s mandate to rule was ordained by Heaven and therefore any change of the mandate should in essence be carried out in response to the will of Heaven. However, change is a basic law of the universe, and the removal of a ruler’s mandate is a specific expression of this law. The legitimacy and success of such change depend on whether those who lead the change do so in response to the will of heaven and the popular desire of the people. In modern times, the term is used as an expression meaning revolution, denoting major social, political or economic changes.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the form and metrical patterns, as well as content, of poetry. It relates to artistic taste and appeal in poetry criticism. Ge (格) refers to the need to satisfy established metrical rules, while diao (调) refers to the need to follow tone and rhyme schemes in poetry. Some poetry critics of the Tang and Song dynasties stressed the importance of form and melody in order to establish a set of elegant and authoritative standards for poetry. Theory on form and melody in the Ming and Qing dynasties often emphasized the importance for poets to abide by Confucian orthodoxy, thus constraining their expression of feelings and artistic creations. The term was later also used in discussions of other forms of art.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a method to carry out translation and interpretation using Chinese thought for the Buddhist doctrines. During the Wei, Jin, and the Southern and Northern Dynasties period, when a large quantity of Buddhist scriptures was translated and introduced, Buddhist thought was completely unfamiliar for the Chinese world. The Chinese people, who were keen on the law of Buddha, tried to fathom the meaning of the Buddhist scriptures. They borrowed the vocabulary of the scriptures of Laozi, Zhuangzi, etc. The concepts and even ideas of these scriptures were appended. They developed their argumentation and that was called “matching meanings.” “Matching” takes the meaning of measuring. So this period was also called the Buddhist period of matching meanings. “Matching meanings” is a kind of method of interpretation. It is an interpretation of Buddhism from the standpoint of Chinese thought, constructing a system of thought of Buddhism in the world of the Chinese. Therefore, it has produced a fundamental influence in the sinification of Buddhism.
DETAILED>>Gonglun (公论) refers to public opinion or remarks, or fair opinion or remarks. It is synonymous with yulun (舆论). Liberal-minded rulers have all through the ages valued the opinion of the majority, especially views widely held by the public and regarded them as the basis on which the correctness, legitimacy, and feasibility of a policy were judged, and even as the fundamental principle or spirit that a nation lives by. In this sense, the concept of gonglun reflects the people-oriented principle of the rule of the majority. Since the beginning of modern times, it has been used as a translation of “public opinion,” which reflects the democracy-based principle of the rule of the majority.
DETAILED>>These refer to two different spheres of life and sets of principles for doing things. As far as the spheres of life is concerned, being “private” refers to the life of an individual or group of individuals. Whereas being “public” refers to the public realm beyond these narrow concerns. There are different principles which govern the different spheres of life, and conflict may arise between the two. When it comes to the principles for doing things, it is in the nature of being “private” to pursue the interest of specific individuals or a particular group of individuals, while being “public” means going beyond the selfish or egoistic for the interest of the wider public.
DETAILED>>The expression means fair and just. Gong (公), the opposite of si (私 private), means impartial and not self-centered. Zheng (正), the opposite of qu (曲 crooked), has two meanings. One is shared norms based on justice, and the other is making oneself comply with these norms in one’s behavior and stay unbiased and impartial in one’s relationship with others. Fairness is expressed mainly in a state or society having a common morality and norms with which all people are bound and which people use to judge whether others are doing right. In modern society, fairness finds its expression mainly in the way that institutions, laws, and people are just and social wealth and public resources are fairly distributed. It is seen as one of the core values conducive to good morality and society.
DETAILED>>Classical Chinese music theory combined tone and pitch to classify and name different types of music, as well as to describe their characteristics. The seven notes are known as gong (宫 corresponding to 1 in the numbered musical notation), shang (商 corresponding to 2), jue (角 corresponding to 3), bianzhi (变徵 corresponding to 4), zhi (徵 corresponding to 5), yu (羽 corresponding to 6) and biangong (变宫 corresponding to 7). Any one of them can be used as a major tune along with other notes set in particular intervals to form a mode. The mode with gong as the major note is called gong, the mode with the rest of the notes as major ones are called diao. The seven modes with the accompaniment of 12 temperaments can theoretically have 12 gongs and 72 diaos, altogether 84 modes of music. However, in practical music, not all the gongs and diaos were used. Only seven gongs with each having four tunes (all together 28 modes of music) were used for imperial court music in the Tang and Song dynasties. Seven gongs and 12 diaos were used for music to go along with poems in the Southern Song Dynasty. In the Yuan Dynasty, six gongs and 11 diaos were used for Northern music, and five gongs and four diaos were used for Southern music. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, only five gongs and four diaos were often used. Some music critics made rules for different gongs and diaos to be used for music for different occasions according to their characteristics. The theory of gongdiao played a role of direction and regulation in music creation for poems and operas and can be used to translate ancient music. It is an important subject for the study of ancient Chinese art
DETAILED>>This term first appeared in The Analects. Gong (躬) means in person and xing (行) refers to the cultivation of morals. According to Confucianism, one should cultivate his morals in everyday life to develop personal integrity. This term embodies the view that knowledge and action should be closely integrated with each other. Confucianism is against those who fail to observe moral principles they preach themselves, emphasizing that people should always follow moral principles in their daily lives.
DETAILED>>A general name is used to refer to everything in the same category. It is a term used by Xunzi (313?-238BC)，and its opposite is “distinct name.” A name should denote the nature of a thing. Things with similar properties can be grouped together under a “general name.” These, together with other things with different general names but still sharing some common properties, can have a higher-level “general name”. The highest-level “general name” is called “broad general name.”
The term means to lessen desires for external things. Humans are prone to pursue excessive desire, which can be harmful to themselves, cause problems with others and lead to social disorder. This is why both Confucian and Taoist scholars called for restraining desires. In Confucian thinking, self-moral cultivation is needed to restrain desires, which, in turn, provides an important way to foster one’s virtue. For Taoism, restraining desires can help people return to “a natural state.”
DETAILED>>Trigrams / Hexagrams and Component Lines
A gua (trigram/hexagram) is a system of symbols consisting of undivided lines (—) and divided lines (- -). The undivided line (—) is a yang line while the divided one (- -) a yin line. Three lines make a trigram, and there are eight such trigrams. When six lines are put together, they together make 64 hexagram combinations. Trigrams / hexagrams and component lines were created partly for the purpose of divination. Ancient Chinese people used yarrow stalks to make hexagrams, calculated the variations they suggested, and consulted them for the purpose of divination. Later on, people used trigrams / hexagrams and component lines symbolically to explain the changes and the laws regulating the changes that occurred in people and everything else, and why and how these changes took place.
DETAILED>>This term means to observe images of phenomena or those of hexagrams. "Images" refer to the appearance of phenomena that can be seen, but have no fixed form. Images of nature, such as the sky or weather, represent the inherent features of humans and events and the laws governing their changes. People in ancient China created various systems of images such as hexagram images to describe images of natural phenomena. "Observing images" calls for closely examining images to understand the laws governing the movement of nature and society.
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The cap wearing ceremony indicated that one had reached adulthood. In ancient China, when a young man came of age, at 20, an important ceremony was held to mark the event. During the ceremony, he would wear different types of caps, hence, the name of the ceremony. Such a ritual suggested that a young man came of age, not only in terms of his physical constitution, but also in terms of the moral standing required of him as an adult. Having gone through this rite, a man was considered qualified to shoulder his responsibilities as an adult in life and take part in important ceremonies or activities.
Gui (贵), meaning “noble” or “expensive,” and jian (贱), meaning “lowly” or “cheap,” form a pair of opposites used to assess the value of things. These terms find application in three scenarios. First, they are employed to appraise the value or price of objects. Second, they serve to evaluate the identity or status of individuals within social hierarchies. Lastly, they are used to judge people’s morality based on certain ethical standards. Confucian scholars emphasized that moral nobility should hold greater value and should be more worthy of pursuit and admiration than mere social status. Some others argued that the distinction between gui and jian was relative, depending on different subjective perspectives or standards.
DETAILED>>Family-state referred to the land owned by feudal lords and officials in ancient China. The land of a feudal lord was called “state” and the land of an official was called “family.” In ancient China, family, clan and country shared common structural features, all founded on the basis of blood relationships. This is the so-called “commensurability of family and state.” Family-state later referred to the entire territory of a country. In modern times, the term is also used to denote a polity encompassing a territory, a people, and a government.
DETAILED>>The term, literally meaning the state and the body, has three meanings. First, it refers to the important ministers who help the sovereign ruler govern the state. Figuratively, the term suggests that the state is a human body and the ministers are the major components of the body. Second, it refers to the constitution and laws of a state. Third, it means national polity or dignity.
DETAILED>>Within the Four Seas means within the territory of China. The ancient Chinese thought China’s territory was surrounded by the Four Seas (the East, West, North, and South seas). Within the Four Seas refers to the landmass surrounded by the Four Seas. It reflected the ancient Chinese belief that the seas were the natural boundary of a country, demonstrating the influence of an agriculture civilization.
DETAILED>>Outside the Four Seas refers to the territory outside China, foreign lands, or remote areas. The ancient Chinese thought that China’s territory was surrounded by the Four Seas (the East, West, North, and South seas). Therefore, places outside China were outside the Four Seas. It reflected the ancient Chinese belief that the seas were the natural boundary of a country. It also suggested that the ancient Chinese were on the one hand self-focused and on the other open-minded, longing to explore the unknown world outside the Four Seas.
DETAILED>>A technique or style in creating literary works, it refers to the use of concise language in portraying a simple artistic image, whose rich feelings and implications are elicited in a subtle manner, so that readers can intuit multiple hidden meanings. One finds a straightforward and factual manner of expression in early literary and artistic works in China, as well as the subtle mode of expression. Because this technique originally evolved from Daoist thought and, in the early period, was employed as a means of criticizing powerful individuals in poetry, it stresses the expression of emotion in a subtly suggestive manner, such that the depiction of images should be supported by a rich undertone or hidden meaning that can appeal to readers. The language should be simple and plain but still leave sufficient room for readers to seize upon hidden meanings. Sikong Tu（837—908）, a literary critic in the Tang Dynasty, listed it as one of the twenty-four styles of poetry writing. Subtle suggestion imparts a high degree of unity to a writer’s cultural attainments, creative technique, as well as his literary style and imagery.
DETAILED>>This term originally refers to an attitude in reading classics, requiring one to become deeply absorbed in the work as if one were submerged in water, repeatedly ruminating on its meaning until one is able to fully digest its significance so that it informs one’s own feelings and insights. In time this becomes a way of learning, impelling one to mobilize one’s own experience and accumulated knowledge to think deeply about what he is reading so that knowledge is endlessly renewed and refreshed. As a method of understanding and interpreting literary works, it requires one to place one’s own thought in the particular world of the work so that one becomes deeply aware of why the work was so written and can master its subtle meanings and aesthetic conception. This method is premised on the understanding that literary works can be deeply inspiring and enlightening.
DETAILED>>Love and hate are two basic desires or emotions of humans, often classified under the category of “will” or“emotion”along with delight, anger, sadness, and joy. Compared to other emotions, love and hate have a more fundamental meaning. People usually think that delight, anger, sadness, and joy are presented based on love and hate. Love and hate are innate psychological abilities, and one should exercise restraint in loving or hating things. Control and regulation of one’s love and hate is an important function of propriety.
DETAILED>>This term means to cherish life and cherish the people. The ancient Chinese believed that the beauty of the natural world lies in its enabling all living creatures to perpetuate themselves, and the universal sentiment of human beings is to cherish life and abhor death. Therefore those who govern must make special efforts to cherish people’s lives. For example, they must not readily resort to the death penalty or start wars; they should eliminate things which harm the people and enable people to lead settled lives. The “virtue of cherishing life” is one which those who govern ought to have, and it is also a principle which they should strictly abide by. This concept is consistent with the ideas of “cherishing the people” and that “the greatest good is to cherish others,” but it goes a step further. It offers a philosophy of life as a foundation for governance; it is the basic concept explaining why people should be empathetic and accommodating to others; it is also often cited as the starting point for the humanist theories of Chinese medicine.
DETAILED>>This term implies mutual coordination and friendship. The
Chinese term hexie (和谐) originally referred
to the simultaneous combination of different tones that gave rise to a musical
work. Later it came to mean a state of governance in which there are good
social relations of coexistence based on respect for differences and diversity.
In such a society, all people give free rein to their talent and find their
proper place to live together in harmony, order and health. Hexie is a
core Confucian ethical principle for dealing with interpersonal relationship
and guiding social and political activities. It now generally refers to the
harmonious, peaceful, and amicable relationship between people, between groups,
and between countries. Harmony represents the Chinese cultural value of
opposing violence and conflicts and cherishing peace and order.
This refers to the Grand Rules, i.e., the fundamental universal laws that all people follow in their life. The term first appeared in The Book of History. Composed of the Nine Great Rules, it divided human life into different areas, laid down the most important elements in each area, hence the basic order that determines the relations between heaven and earth, ethics and politics, and nature and mankind. Ancient people believed that the Nine Great Rules in the Grand Rules were bestowed by Heaven with irresistible authority.
The forefathers of the Han people living in the Central Plains referred to themselves by this term. Earlier on they called themselves Hua (华), Zhuhua (诸华), Xia (夏) or Zhuxia (诸夏). The term Huaxia (华夏) embodies the common identity of the way of life, language, and culture of the people living in the Central Plains, mainly the Han people, and the inheritance of such identity. The Huaxia people evolved into a fairly stable ethnic group in the Qin Dynasty, which established a unified country of many ethnic groups with Huaxia being the principal group. In the Han Dynasty, the term Han became an alternative name of Huaxia. Later, the term Huaxia was extended to refer to China or the Han people.
DETAILED>>Sublimity is the highest state of art. It was an important term in literary criticism in ancient China, similar to the ideas of “the oneness of heaven and humans” and “the miraculous work of nature.” The assertion that “heaven and earth exist in harmony with me and all things in the universe are inseparable from me,” as made in Zhuangzi’s (369?-286 BC) “On Seeing Things as Equal,” marked the beginning of this theory. A work of art with such excellence shows an aesthetic state wherein one basks in a blissful loss of division between him and his surroundings and heaven and man become completely merged. Whether it is a poem or a painting, it is so naturally created that it bears no mark of men’s “carving or chiseling.” The sublime in art occurs when the artist has had more than sufficient accomplishment, profound understanding and artistic technique. He will then be able to suit his actual execution of strokes to his fantasy by making everything at his fingertips work. Such an effect is achieved as if only by nature’s magical hand, not through human effort at all.
The term has both broad and narrow meanings. Interpreted narrowly, it means various painting techniques. Interpreted broadly, it means the cultural values, personality, artistic style, and aesthetic aspiration embodied in a painting, suggesting a perfect fusion of Dao and skills. Dao determines the theme a painting conveys as well as the painting’s artistic principles and aesthetic style. A painting is a concrete image that illustrates Dao. It reflects the cultural principles followed by the painter as well as his personality, artistic style, and aesthetic aspiration. Therefore, paintings illuminate Dao, which in turn enhances the paintings. Prominent painters seek to access Dao through refining their skills and epitomizing Dao in artwork. The Dao of painting not only encompasses the Dao of nature, but also the Dao of social life, demonstrating the commitment to humanism inherent in the Chinese culture.
DETAILED>>This term refers to desolate and barren landscapes described or portrayed in classical poems or paintings that convey a feeling of loneliness and desolation. During the Tang and Song dynasties, some poets who were either exiled or sent to work at border garrisons did not only dwell in desolate places but also felt the dire bleakness within as they saw no hope for their future and they were being unappreciated and unrecognized for what they were worth. As a result, in their poetry they would create bleak, desolate scenes with a view to expressing their perseverance and determination to maintain personal integrity. In doing so they created a unique artistic method capable of transcending reality. Paintings depicting grim, desolate scenes suggest the lonely communication of man with nature, expressing as well the integration of man with nature. Such poems and paintings represent a kind of taste and style characteristic of Chinese culture.
DETAILED>>The supreme ruler of imperial China was called huangdi, meaning “emperor.” The origin of this word is a legend of ancient sovereigns known as the three huang ( 皇 sovereigns) and five di (帝 emperors). It is said that the three huang were Fuxi, Shennong and Suiren, while others identify them as Fuxi, Shennong and Nüwa. The five di are usually said to be Huangdi, Zhuanxu, Ku, Yao and Shun. In fact, they were just leaders of tribes or tribal alliances in remote antiquity. As they had unique contributions (Fuxi, for instance, taught people hunting and fishing and created the eight trigrams), they were honored with the titles huang or di. Huang originally meant august and great, and di indicated shrewdness and alertness. After Ying Zheng(259-210 BC), the king of Qin, unified China, he viewed his achievements as being greater than those of the three huang and five di. Therefore he put huang and di together and called himself “ the First Huangdi (Emperor).” From then on, huangdi became the title of the highest ruler in China.
DETAILED>>Originating in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the Yellow River is the second longest waterway in China, flowing eastward through the provinces of Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu, the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, as well as the provinces of Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, and Shandong before emptying into the Bohai Sea. With a total length of 5,464 kilometers, the Yellow River is one of the major waterways in the world. The river is so named because of its yellowish color caused by the large amount of silts washed into it. Considered the cradle of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture, the river is therefore known as the Mother River among the Chinese, and has become an important cultural image and sign for the Chinese nation. It symbolizes the heroism and perseverance with which the Chinese nation forges ahead against all odds.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a state of existence which is hard to see and ascertain. It is used in Laozi to describe the existential characteristics of Dao. According to Laozi, Dao is shapeless, nebulous, and beyond characterization by anything physical or material. At the same time, it is not completely void, but influences everything in the universe. This intangible nature is typical of Dao.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a situation in which people understand each other without the need to utter a single word. It generally means the spontaneous understanding reached by close friends who share common interests, aspirations, and dispositions. In particular, it refers to an aesthetic state in which the subject and the object interact with each other smoothly with no barrier between them, or in which an artist creates a marvelous image and a viewer appreciates it with emotion and understanding. The culmination of such an experience is joy and satisfaction derived from the perfect harmony between the human heart and its surroundings.
DETAILED>>The term means to benefit and provide for the people. Huimin (惠民) is a concrete manifestation of benevolent governance and loving the people, with focus on dividing wealth among the people and benefiting them. The emphasis is on placing the interests of the people first, so that they will support both ruler and government officials. Specifically this means all policies and measures must be in the public interest, must fulfill and ensure the real needs of the people, and keep wealth with them; they should not conflict with the public interest, or worse, be deceitful or resort to force.
DETAILED>>The wedding is an important ceremony in human life, through which a man and woman become a married couple. In the eyes of ancient Chinese people, it was a ceremony affirming the bond of love between man and woman, heralding a husband-wife relationship of mutual respect and forming a family unit for orderly human life. The bond between husband and wife coming from two clans with two different surnames also served to foster an intimate relationship between the two clans, and ensured the multiplication of family members and the continuation of future generations. In modern society, many changes have happened to the form and significance of the wedding ceremony.
The term has two meanings. First, it refers to the state of one whole mass that existed before the universe took shape, often said to exist before qi (vital force) emerged. The multitude of organisms on earth all emanated from this state. Second, it refers to Chaos, king of the Central Region in a fable in Zhuangzi. According to the fable, Chaos had no eyes, nose, mouth or ears. Shu, king of the South Sea, and Hu, king of the North Sea, drilled seven apertures into Chaos and killed him. Zhuangzi （369？-286 BC）used this story to show the state of chaos of the world in which there is neither knowledge or wisdom, nor distinction between good and evil.
DETAILED>>Literary flexibility means that one should respect the rules for writing poetry or prose but not be bound by them; one should encourage change and innovation. The opposite of literary flexibility is literary rigidity under whose influence the writer mechanically imitates the forms of established writers without innovation. One way to attain literary flexibility in one’s works is to draw inspiration from others extensively and absorb their talent while refraining from sticking mechanically to the model. One should base oneself on his own feelings and the aesthetic principles so as to create new styles and new ways of expression. Influenced by the Chan spirit of liberal flexibility, literary critics of the Song Dynasty championed flexibility in literary pursuit and established it as an important principle guiding poetry and prose writing.
DETAILED>>Huofu (祸福) refers to things that have good or harmful impacts on people or the results that they may cause. Fu (福) refers to good fortune that benefits people while huo (祸) refers to disasters that harm humans. Generally speaking, people pursue good fortune while avoiding misfortune. Therefore, they also explore the reasons for the occurrence of good fortune and misfortune. Some people believe that fortune and misfortune are rewards or punishments from heaven or limitations imposed by destiny that are beyond human control. Others advocate that fortune and misfortune depend on people’s own words and deeds. In addition, some emphasize that people should go beyond calculating fortune and misfortune and just do what they should do.
DETAILED>>Ji (机) or verve here refers to artistic verve, or vitality, and focuses on the natural ingenuity reflected in the conceptualization and structure of a work of art, while qu (趣) or appeal here refers to aesthetic appeal, emphasizing narrative and verbal techniques used in creating images and expressing emotions. This concept is mainly used in theories of play-writing, and also in poetics and theories of painting and calligraphy. It was put forth as a concept for artistic creation by Li Yu ( 1611- 1680 ), a scholar of the late Ming and early Qing period. He advocated that plays should show natural ingenuity in their structural conceptualization as well as deploy lively and appealing language, and that literary creation should be integrated with real life, which means real life should inspire literature and literature should capture real life. Li Yu’s theory exerted a considerable influence on the development of classic drama theories in China. As a technique for artistic creation, the term jiqu articulated a specific way to express the beauty of an art work both in its content and form. It argued against trite and obsolete expressions, and showed an interest in pursuing artistic perspicacity and transcendental beauty resplendent with vivid images and lively expressions. This concept is also used in poetry criticism later.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to the outcomes of events that have different impacts on individuals, where positive outcomes are considered auspicious and negative outcomes are regarded as inauspicious. This classification is also applied to things that may lead to good or harmful results, or things that are good or harmful in nature. For example, weddings are seen as auspicious ceremonies, while funerals are viewed as inauspicious ceremonies. People generally strive for auspiciousness and try to avoid inauspiciousness. Consequently, they continuously explore the factors that contribute to these states and have developed different interpretations.
DETAILED>>The sacrificial ceremony is one of the major rituals in the life of the Chinese. In ancient times, sacrificial ceremonies were held to show reverence for heaven, earth, the sun, the moon, mountains, rivers, or ancestors. By holding a sacrificial ceremony for such things or ancestors, people showed their respect and awe for them, which they hoped would protect and give blessings to themselves. The rites observed during the sacrificial ceremony reflected the social status of ceremony participants. Sacrificial ceremonies are still conducted today, but both the way they are conducted and their significance have greatly changed.
DETAILED>>“Designation” is the provisional naming that refers to things that lack any intrinsic nature. In Buddhism, some schools argue that nothing in the universe exists. The reason why things appear to be different from each other is that as soon as they are designated by different names, what the names refer to are mistaken as the distinctive objects that exist in reality. But the truth is that things are all made by the combination of certain conditions and circumstances and gain their names through superimposition of conceptions. Since the names of things cannot correspond to anything real, the names are known as mere “designations.”
DETAILED>>Universal love, equal affection for all individuals, is a basic concept of the Mohist School of thought, as opposed to the principle of differentiated love advocated by the Confucian School. Universal love emphasizes that you should love others as you love yourself, and love others’ relatives and people of other states as you love your own so that all people would love one another equally. This principle of affection has no regard for blood ties or social status. It is an affection that is exercised equally without differentiating between individuals, families, or nations. If such a principle could be realized, we could avoid conflicts between persons, clans, or nations and bring equal benefit to all.
DETAILED>>It means to listen to diverse points of view. Before making decisions, leaders must listen to all kinds of opinions and synthesize them so as to extract the most sensible arguments. That is deemed a basic characteristic of a wise and worthy leader. To do so, a leader must be fair, impartial, and open-minded. Only in this way can the parties concerned speak their minds and make rational suggestions, which, in turn, will enable a leader to benefit from various ideas, weigh the trade-offs, make correct decisions, and ensure their successful implementation.
DETAILED>>This means one’s innate quality can be cultivated and shown through one’s appearance. It originated in the Chinese classic Mencius. Mencius (372?-289BC), an ancient Chinese thinker, believed that a person’s physical appearance embodies his innate quality. However, the physical appearance of many people fails to give expression to their innate quality. Only a sage can see and make use of such quality and demonstrate it through physical appearance, enabling the physical appearance to perform its due function.
DETAILED>>The term, similar in meaning to heshan (河山), literarily means rivers and mountains. It is used to refer to the sovereignty of a state and all its territory. The term has these implications: rivers and mountains provide natural barriers that protect the country and its sovereignty; territory is the key feature of a state.
DETAILED>>Shaping the mind through education was a key concept of the political philosophy and an essential way of governance in ancient China. Rulers usually used a combination of means, both visible and invisible, to subtly spread their values among people so that these values would be observed in people’s daily life, leading to integration of governance and social mores. These means include issuing administrative decrees, conducting moral education, creating a favorable environment, disseminating popular literature that promoted ethical values, and selecting officials through imperial examinations.
DETAILED>>“The twenty-four solar terms” is a unique phenomenon on the traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with the 24 solar terms proportionally distributed through the 12 months. A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the middle part of a month is called qi (气). (Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it.) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season, phenology and climate. The eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox, Beginning of Winter and Winter Solstice; the four solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser Fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water, Grain Rain, Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold and Greater Cold. First established in the Qin and Han dynasties, the 24 solar periods have not only facilitated agricultural production but also reflected Chinese people’s perception of time in the past more than two thousand years.
DETAILED>>Jieyong (节用) means economy, or frugality of usage. Jieyong is an attitude regarding material property; that is, using property sparingly and reducing its unnecessary consumption. This term was often used to point out that those in government should not abuse the powers of their office to seize wealth from the people to meet their own needs or for extravagances. Jieyong in those who govern is a manifestation of their care and concern for their people. Different schools of thought like the Confucians and the Mohists all advocated jieyong, but they had different views about its criteria and scope.
DETAILED>>This term originally referred to the general layout of a building. Later, it came to mean the overall framework and plot development of a piece of work of art and literature. In theories about calligraphy, it refers to both the structure of an individual character and the rules and layout of an entire calligraphic work. Strokes of varying lengths and widths, as well as their upward or downward tilts, determine the shape of a character. Therefore, structure is essential to creating a piece of calligraphic art. In theories about poetry and prose writing, it refers to elements of poetic composition such as introduction, the unfolding of a process, transition to another viewpoint and summing up; it is also used to evaluate the structural merits or demerits of an essay. In theories about fiction and drama, this term is used even more widely. The Late Ming to early Qing drama theorist Li Yu (1611-1680) observed in his Occasional Notes with Leisure Motions that structure was like forming a concrete creature – one needs to set up a frame and give it flesh and blood until its facial features and body finally take shape. It was also like building a house – a builder should first of all create a general layout in mind; he was not supposed to change the design in the course of house construction. Li Yu’s theory about structure included items such as a focus on the main characters and events, abandonment of stereotypes in creating a drama, coherence between parts of a drama and elimination of nonessentials. It emphasized the idea that drama was an art of overall designing. Structure is the most suitable term to explain how parts should be combined into an integral whole.
This term, from Xunzi, means to clear the mind of enigmas so that one may understand dao. Xunzi （313？-238 BC） believes that man’s moral integrity depends on his understanding of dao. However, man’s likes and dislikes, desires and external factors are likely to jaundice his understanding of dao. To clear such enigmas, one needs to cultivate one’s mind to keep it open, concentrated, and tranquil.
DETAILED>>Bronze script refers to writings inscribed on bronze ware in the Shang and Zhou dynasties; it was developed from inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells. There were many sub-types of bronze ware in ancient China, but they were roughly under two main categories: sacrificial vessels and musical instruments. Sacrificial vessels were represented by tripod or quadripod cauldrons, and musical instruments, by chimes. Therefore, ancient bronze ware was formerly known as “chimes and cauldrons,” and bronze script used to be called “chime and cauldron inscriptions.” The use of bronze script began in the Shang Dynasty, grew very popular in the Zhou Dynasty, and declined in the Qin Dynasty, lasting over 800 years. Bronze script contained over 3,700 characters, of which 2,420 are now intelligible, slightly outnumbering the intelligible characters on bones and tortoise shells. Bronze script was mainly records of sacrificial ceremonies, bestowals, announcements of decrees, declarations of war, hunting expeditions, and pledges of allegiance. It reflected life in those historical periods.
DETAILED>>“Exerting one’s mind to the utmost” means one should fully understand and extend one’s innate goodness. It is a way of moral cultivation advocated by Mencius（372-289 BC）. To do so, one needs to develop one’s capability of thinking, discover the goodness inherent in the mind and then fully nurture this innate human character, eventually realizing the moral qualities of benevolence, righteousness, rites and social norms, and wisdom.
DETAILED>>This term is used mostly in literary criticism to refer to a vigorous life force, the intensity of language, a burst of literary talent, an overwhelming impact, as well as a powerful appeal to readers’ hearts. It requires the author to maintain a lucid mind, be filled with positivity, have abundant self-cultivation, embrace noble ideals, be unbridled in literary expression, possess a variety of styles, and infuse spiritual strength into his whole work.
DETAILED>>Originally, this term referred to universal ways and the texts in which they are recorded. Later, it came to refer to written texts that set standards. Jing (经) here describes the warp yarns on a loom. Because warp yarns have to be steady for the weft to go through and thus create a woven fabric, it has come to signify underlying norms. Subsequently, people refer to those texts that contain underlying rules and can serve as guidelines for thought and behavior as jing (classics). Examples of such classics include the Six Classics, Buddhist sutras, Laozi, and Yellow Emperor’s Internal Canon of Medicine. Dian (典) originally described the holding, with both hands, of a book of bound bamboo strips to worship the spirits. It subsequently came to include all bamboo strips, documents, and books that set standards and norms as well as such concepts as models, principles, or the constant way. Used together, those two Chinese characters refer to authoritative writings that articulate universal ways. In ancient China, this term mainly referred to the Four Books and Five Classics of Confucianism. In modern times, it has become the equivalent to the English word “classics,” referring in general to authoritative writings with enduring influence in various disciplines, writings that have become a source of inspiration of human civilization.
DETAILED>>The term is an abbreviation of an expression meaning public governance and support for the people. Jing (经) means managing state and social affairs in an orderly manner; ji (济) means helping people who are in difficulty. This dual-pronged approach to governance is aimed at making the nation and society prosperous and ensuring that the people live in peace and contentment. The concept of jingji (经济) embodies the goals and principles followed by traditional Chinese intellectuals in the pursuit of scholarship and learning, and reflects their commitment to apply learning to the service of the country and for the benefit of the people. In modern times, the term is used to mean “economy,” namely, social activities that create, transfer or realize value, and satisfy people’s material and cultural needs.
DETAILED>>It refers to the study of Confucian classics. Classics scholarship is also called "studies of the six arts," namely, the scholarship on The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals, encompassing annotations and exegeses of classics, explication of the principles of classics, and discussions of such subjects as textual inheritance and traditions, as well as the origins of various schools. Classics scholarship is pursued to express one's fundamental understanding of the order and values of the world through constant exploration of the underlying implications of such classics.
DETAILED>>Vital energy refers to the finest and most subtle energy. The earliest detailed explanation of vital energy is found in Guanzi. According to the book, the finest and most subtle energy is a concrete manifestation of dao. All things with shapes and all human beings are made up of vital energy; one’s life, sense, and intelligence are also believed to derive from vital energy.
DETAILED>>Pure land refers to a Buddha's field free of contamination and suffering. The idea derives from the notion of buddhakṣetra (literally Buddha-field), which is the dwelling place of an Enlightened One. That the multiple worlds each shelters a Buddha is a key doctrine in Mahayana Buddhism. Such a pure and well-decorated field is guaranteed by the pure mind of the Buddha therein – pure as opposed to the mundane world of the contaminated sentient beings. The Pure Land School focuses on the way to achieve liberation through chanting a Buddha's name, for example, Amitabha (literally unmeasured splendour), and taking rebirth in his pure land with the help of the Buddha's gracious vows.
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Jingjie (境界) originally meant border or boundary. Later, it was used to translate the idea of a mental realm in Buddhist sutras, a state of spiritual cultivation achieved after having overcome bewilderment in the material world. As a literary and artistic term, jingjie is mainly used to indicate the aesthetic depth in a literary work so as to give full expression to the author’s creativity, comprehension, and aesthetic faculties. A work reaching a high level of jingjie manifests the author’s true personality, transcends the ordinary, strikes a responsive chord in the heart of the reader, stimulates the reader’s imagination, and thus enhances the reader’s appreciation of his work. The term yijing (意境 aesthetic conception) came into being earlier than jingjie, which was formed under the influence of Buddhism in the mid-Tang period. In his Poetic Remarks in the Human World, modern scholar Wang Guowei （1877-1927）wrote extensively about jingjie. He often used yijing in the same sense as he used jingjie or the other way round. He created the theory of jingjie, in which he blended classical Western and classical Chinese aesthetics. Generally speaking, yijing refers to a perfect combination of the message the author conveys with the images he uses in his works, and it gives full rein to reader’s imagination. The concept of jingjie, however, foregrounds the sublimation of artistic images through mental insight, and emphasizes the role of the mental world in elevating the work of art to a higher level.
DETAILED>>This term is an alternative designation for China. According to The Book of History, the country consisted of nine zhou (州), namely Jizhou, Yanzhou, Qingzhou, Xuzhou, Yangzhou, Jingzhou, Yuzhou, Liangzhou, and Yongzhou. There are similar references to the nine zhou in classic works of the same or later period, such as The Rituals of Zhou, Er Ya, and Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals. The nine zhou were never adopted as actual administrative divisions of the country, but they did show the general geographical area inhabited by the Chinese people since the late Spring and Autumn Period.
DETAILED>>The quatrain is one of the important styles of ancient Chinese poetry. According to the number of characters, they can be divided into quatrains with five-character lines and quatrains with seven-character lines. A quatrain with four five-character lines has 20 characters, while a quatrain with four seven-character lines contains 28 characters. In terms of rules and forms, those that conform to the rules and forms are called “rules-based quatrains” while those that do not are termed “ancient quatrains.” The five-character quatrain originated from the yuefu poetry and folk songs of the Han Dynasty, while those with seven-character lines originated from the ballads of the Wei and Jin dynasties. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the vigorous growth of yuefu folk songs encouraged the literati to write large numbers of five-character poetry imitating the yuefu style, which promoted the development of these quatrains. In addition, the quatrains with five- and seven-character lines created in the Northern and Southern Dynasties began to stress tonal and rhythmic patterns. By the Tang Dynasty, rules-based poetry gradually became well-defined, and ancient quatrains and rules-based quatrains with five- and seven-character lines became the mainstream poetic styles, and a large number of famous poets and masterpieces emerged. As the quatrains are short and almost end the moment they begin, extra attention is required for their layout. Poets not only place emphasis on the completeness of the meaning, on freshness and naturalness, but also on the underlying nuances of words and rhymes.
DETAILED>>Junzi (君子) was originally used to indicate a person’s social status, generally referring to a ruler or a member of the aristocracy. Beginning with Confucius（551-479 BC), the term acquired an additional moral dimension and came to mean someone of true virtue. The opposite of junzi is xiaoren (小人), which roughly means the “petty men.” In the Confucian tradition, junzi is someone who is above a scholar and below a sage in terms of moral influence. A man of virtue pursues and practices the ideal known as dao and regards dao as the fundamental meaning of life above power or gains.
DETAILED>>The two-tier local government administration of prefectures and counties took shape between the late Spring and Autumn Period and the early Qin Dynasty. Back in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, some kingdoms established county or prefectural administration in newly annexed areas, but the two were separate jurisdictions. When the First Emperor of Qin(259-210 BC) unified China, he abolished the enfeoffment system that was based on consanguinity and established a vertical government system of prefectures and counties under which the central government exercised jurisdiction over prefectures, and prefectures exercised jurisdiction over counties. Heads of prefectures and counties were appointed and dismissed by the central government. The Chinese word for prefect was shou (守，changed to taishou 太守 by Emperor Jing of the Han Dynasty); and a county head was called ling（令） or zhang（长）. In the early Han Dynasty, both enfeoffment and the prefecture-county system were practiced. Gradually the latter prevailed. The prefecture-county system strengthened autocratic-imperial rule and was a key component of the centralized power system.
Regular script is one of the scripts of Chinese characters, also known as “proper script,” “true script,” or “model script.” To reduce the curviness and waviness of Han Dynasty clerical script, rectify the undisciplined and unregulated cursive script, facilitate writing and enhance intelligibility, calligraphers shifted toward a simpler style of writing, making both horizontal and vertical lines straighter. Thus, it evolved into the regular script. Characters written in this style looked neat and well laid out, upright and square, showing due reverence for rules governing the writing of calligraphy. This is precisely how it came to be called “model script.” It first emerged toward the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, became better known in the Wei and Jin dynasties, and fully matured and became widely accepted in the Tang Dynasty. It has been flourishing to this day. If divided by historical periods, regular script falls into two styles: Wei stone tablet regular script and Tang regular script. The former represented a transition from clerical script to regular script over the Wei, Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties period. The latter was Tang style regular script. Gaining its maturity in the Tang Dynasty, it witnessed many great calligraphers rising to fame, including Yu Shinan (558-638), Ouyang Xun (557-641), and Chu Suiliang (596-658 or 659) in the first years of the Tang Dynasty, Yan Zhenqing (708-784) in the mid-Tang Dynasty and Liu Gongquan (778-865) in the last years of the same dynasty. These calligraphers have since been honored as paragons of Chinese calligraphy. Numerous practitioners have been using their calligraphic works as models of calligraphy through the ages.
This is the system in which officials were selected through different levels of examinations. After Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty（541-604）reunified China in 581, he abolished the system of selecting officials on the basis of family background or moral character. In 605, the first year of the reign of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty（569-618）, the system to select officials through imperial civil examinations was officially established. From then on, examination subjects, content, and recruitment standards varied from dynasty to dynasty. The jinshi exam was the most difficult of imperial civil examinations,and was always the most revered by scholars. Since the Yuan and Ming dynasties, examination content had been based on the Four Books and the Five Classics and had to be answered in the form of the stereotyped “eight-part” essay and refer to Commentaries on the Four Books and other classics. In 1905 Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty （1871-1908）issued an edict abolishing the imperial civil examination system. For 1,300 years since the Sui Dynasty, the imperial civil examination system was the main method for selecting officials, which had a broad and profound influence on Chinese society. It hastened the transformation of aristocracy-based politics to bureaucracy-based politics and had multiple functions such as educating people, selecting officials, choosing talent through examinations, social stratification, and carrying forward the traditional culture.
DETAILED>>This refers to an open, free, and flexible style of a work of art； it is the opposite of a “densely packed” work of art. Ethereal effect does not mean sheer emptiness； it does not completely avoid imagery, nor does it entirely avoid natural description. Rather its aim is to suggest unlimited possibilities for the viewer’s imagination through a highly economical use of brushwork and imagery so as to pursue the “meaning that lies beyond literal form” or “associations beyond the work itself.” In this way it leaves room for the viewer’s imagination. For example, just as redundant description is deliberately left out of an essay or a poem, along with ponderous wording or unnecessary images, just so thick ink and heavy colors may be avoided in painting. The notion of ethereal effect values simple layout and an economical use of details, seeking to convey character and imagination. Works that make use of ethereal effect convey a wonderful lucidity, and possess openness, freedom, and natural grace. Such works enable viewers to appreciate the aesthetic joy of free imagination.
DETAILED>>The Tang-dynasty poet Jia Dao (779-843) found composing his poems quite a painful process, and his creative method was to chant his verses repeatedly to get the right line. Those engaged in “painstaking versification” tended to be exhausted and frustrated, and their poetry is regarded as a way of relief for their sorrows. Sometimes, the term also refers to a perfectionist attitude to literary and artistic creation.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the use of exaggeration and embellishment in a literary work to enhance its artistic appeal. When used as appropriate, exaggeration and embellishment can achieve an artistic effect beyond that of realistic descriptions. However, if overused, it will create the opposite effect, making the writing too flowery to be credible. Therefore, the literary critics of old China believed that excessive use of exaggeration and embellishment should be avoided.
DETAILED>>Proactive and prudent were used by Confucius（551-479 BC） to refer to two opposing attitudes and styles of behavior. Proactive persons tend to be radical and won’t make any compromise in upholding moral principles and justice. Prudent persons, on the other hand, tend to be cautious and ready to make compromise but without sacrificing moral integrity. Confucius believed that the ideal conduct in life is keeping to the mean, neither going too far nor falling short. While proactive and prudent may be extreme to some extent, both have their own advantages as both adhere to moral principles and justice.
DETAILED>>The term means broad-mindedness and a totally unconstrained artistic style in poetic works. It presents a perfect union of the author’s outlook on life, his peaceful mind, and the artistic form of his work. A broad-minded writer was often disheartened, who went into seclusion, caused either by frustrations countered in life or social turmoil, and he would naturally seek to express his emotion in literature. As reflected in his writings, such a writer possessed a keen insight into the vicissitudes of worldly affairs. Being cynical and indignant, he also revealed such feelings of disdain for the world and its ways in his writings. The origin of this attitude can be traced back to the Confucian concept of proactivity and the Daoist proposition of following the nature, as well as to the open and cultured way of life characteristic of famous scholars of the Wei and Jin dynasties. Such a writer would not shy away from the worldly, but neither would he cling to fame and wealth. He was completely reasonable in attitude and tolerant in mood. Sikong Tu（837-908）, a literary critic in the Tang Dynasty, used this term to assess poetic and aesthetic achievement by emphasizing the unity of the style of a work and the mental attitude and the view about human life on the part of the author. The idea is to promote a view about life and an aesthetic attitude that is open-minded and uplifting.
DETAILED>>This term indicates a willingness to hear and follow admonishments. In ancient China, there was a time-honored system of court admonishers. Such officials gave admonishments to the monarch against possible wrong-doings, and could be found in the imperial court of every dynasty, though the official titles could differ. This practice was dictated by the fundamental nature of the ancient Chinese political system itself, where an autocratic monarchy shaped by the Qin and Han dynasties continued for over two thousand years. This system was marked by the monarch’s monopolization of legislative, judicial, and administrative powers. A consequent flaw was that the monarch could easily harm the fundamental interests of the dynasty with his arbitrary decisions and willful actions, thus intensifying the crisis of the autocratic regime. In order to address that flaw, each imperial court set up a system of court admonishers. In Chinese history, there are numerous tales of courageous court admonishers who gave their honest opinions even when faced with displeasure from monarchs, and of monarchs who willingly listened to outspoken admonishers.
DETAILED>>In ancient China, music, together with poetry, was a way to conduct political education. Reviewing music education in the Zhou Dynasty, the Confucian scholars before the Qin-dynasty unification of China at the time concluded that music could transform social and cultural practices, stir up one’s inner emotions, and cultivate a good character. On this basis, they developed a comprehensive Confucian theory of music and music education. Subsequently, both “music education” and “poetry education” became important subjects in the official school system, forming a key part of early Chinese ritual and music culture.
DETAILED>>Wanting to live and not to die is only natural. A cardinal principle for those who took power was to save the people from disasters and win their trust. It was also what made governance legitimate. One should not drive the people to desperation so that they lose their will to live. Therefore the ruler should bear two things in mind: create all possible opportunities for people to survive, and when they are in difficulties, the state should do everything to help them. Otherwise basic order in state and society cannot be maintained, to say nothing of effective governance. This is the manifestation of the beliefs “caring for others” and “people first” as well as “charishing life.”
DETAILED>>These constitute a genre of short rewriting in ancient times to sing the praise of a meritorious or virtuous deceased person. Such a eulogy, written in rhymed verse, was usually used to recount the deceased person’s virtuous deeds and express one’s grief over his death. The inscription carved on a stela has two parts, with the first part being a brief account of the life of a deceased person and the second extolling the person’s merits and virtues. According to Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties, this kind of writing was no longer written for emperors and kings only, but was extended to cover ordinary people. The text was written to see that the deceased person’s noble character passes down to posterity. It should highlight the person’s deeds truthfully and eulogize his fine deeds and virtue. A eulogy or an inscription carved on a stela was written to cherish the memory of the deceased and satisfy the need of those who were alive to seek eternal solace. It should also promote virtue and inspire later generations to excel. So, it should be discreet and proper in its assessment of the deceased person.
“Classified name” is a category used in the Mohist School for naming the same kind of things. The Mohists stressed the importance of properly naming things in different ways to reflect their real nature. They had three ways to name things: unrestricted, classified, and private.“Classified name”refers to the name for the same kind of things, such as the name“horse.” “Horse”is used to refer to horses of all different types.
This term refers to the philosophical substance of a work as well as its literary appeal conveyed to readers through its artistic image. In other words, it means the philosophical insights and aesthetic engagement that readers acquire through the process of appreciatively reading classic literary works. For example, poets of the Wei, Jin, or Southern and Northern dynasties were fond of entertaining abstruse schools of philosophy in their poems, while Song-dynasty poets often used poetry to comment on the society of their time. Both practices were treated as faults by some critics of later times. Some later critics even maintained that philosophical content should never figure into a poem apart from artistic images. Instead they insisted that the substantial content of the poem should be conveyed only by means of artistic images so that it could be grasped by readers through their appreciation of the work’s artistic features, thus the term “substance through artistic appeal.” Li (理) in this phrase refers to insights derived from the experience of life rather than bookish knowledge and learning. It is not something that can be acquired or expressed through logical argument. Qu (趣) refers to the aesthetic delight readers obtain when they acquire insight into life through reading classic literary works. This concept turns the dispute over whether poems could present logical arguments into a theory of the integration of reason and taste in poetic writing. It helps critics appreciate dialectically those literary works that contain both logic and insight.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a classical Chinese literary style generally known as “parallel prose,” largely composed of couplets of phrases with similar structure. Monosyllabic Chinese words, each represented with a single written character, are fairly easy to arrange in pairs of expressions with semantic symmetry and prosodic harmony. The ornate parallel style highlights the beauty of the form of the language without neglecting the harmony between form and content; and it is employed to produce fine works of utmost beauty, with form and content reinforcing each other.
DETAILED>>Clerical script is a variety of Chinese calligraphy during its evolution, also known as the “official script” or “ancient style of calligraphy.” It evolved from and was a simplification of seal script. In terms of execution of strokes, clerical script changed rounded turns to abrupt turns. Structurally, each character was wider and flatter, with longer horizontal lines and shorter vertical ones, featuring an elegant style like “a silkworm’s head and the tail of a wild goose,” and “one wave and three bends.” Clerical script is said to have been invented by a junior clerk named Cheng Miao who lived in the Qin Dynasty but actually it originated during the earlier Warring States Period. Cheng Miao was responsible only for putting into order and standardizing this calligraphic style. Compared with the seal script, clerical script was simpler in structure and more convenient to write. It became popular in the Eastern Han Period, reaching an unprecedented height of development. In the Wei and Jin period, the clerical script was also referred to as regular script, or proper script, which is similar to clerical style, but with left-falling and right-falling strokes.
DETAILED>>This refers to historians or history books that record historical facts in an objective and truthful way based on evidences without covering up anything. Objectivity is the ultimate criterion for judging historians or history books in historiography.
DETAILED>>Humans are born with innate conscience and the ability to know and act upon it. The term liangzhi (良知) was first used by Mencius（372？-289 BC), who believed that what man knew by instinct was liangzhi (knowledge of goodness). The term includes ren (仁), i.e. love for one’s parents and yi (义), i.e. respect for one’s elder brothers. The concept is an important component of Mencius’ belief in the innate goodness of human nature. The Ming-dynasty philosopher Wang Yangming（1472-1529） raised the idea of “attaining liangzhi.” He extended the Mencius’ liangzhi to mean the principles of heaven, maintaining that all things under heaven and their laws were covered by liangzhi. With liangzhi being extended to its fullest (through self-cultivation and moral practice), it is possible to know and put in practice all moral truths.
DETAILED>>Things come into being and exist in two modes, which are used to describe how the eight trigrams are formed. As explained in The Book of Changes: “The Book of Changes involve taiji (太极 the supreme ultimate), which produces two modes. The two modes generate the four images, and the four images give birth to the eight trigrams.” Taiji divides itself into two mutually complementary but opposite parts, or modes. Ancient Chinese had different views as to what the modes represented. Some believed that from the point of view of the formation of the universe, the two modes could be understood as heaven and earth or as yin and yang. Others thought that as a term in divination, the two modes could refer to two groups formed by randomly dividing up 49 yarrow stalks used in divination, or the two lines, solid or broken, in the hexagrams of The Book of Changes.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the following six criteria on literary appreciation and criticism which are also six key elements in writing: structural layout of writing, choice of words to construct sentences, acceptance and innovation in the style of earlier writers, inheriting and transforming traditional ways of expression, citing examples to support an argument, and musical rhythm. As a school of literary criticism, the six criteria formed a key component in the theoretical system established in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. The six criteria offered rules that could be followed to avoid subjectivity in literary criticism. They also provided a framework of theoretical guidance for later generations of critics and exerted significant influence on the development of literary theory in modern times.
DETAILED>>This term means six different forms of qi (vital force). Their earliest mention is found in Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals. Qi is the basic element of all things corporeal, and flows between heaven and earth. It manifests itself in six different forms: yin, yang, wind, rain, darkness (night), and light (day). They appear in pairs of opposites: yin versus yang, wind versus rain, and darkness versus light. Their interaction produces complicated and varied forms of human and other natural phenomena.
DETAILED>>The six basic elements were drawn from The Book of Songs by scholars of the Han Dynasty to promote the state’s governance, social enlightenment, and education. The six are: feng (ballad), which offers an insight into the influence of a sage’s thinking on ordinary folk customs; fu (narrative), which directly states the goodness or evilness of court politics; bi (analogy), which criticizes mildly the inadequacies of court politics by comparing one thing with another; xing (association), which extols a virtue by making an indirect reference to some other laudable thing; ya (court hymn), which shows the proper way of doing things as a norm for posterity to follow; and song (eulogy), which praises and promotes virtue. All the six elements were originally used by Confucian scholars to expound on the creative techniques in The Book of Songs. Later, they were used to emphasize creative styles of all works of poetry. They also served as essential principles of literary criticism.
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The six arts may refer to two sets of content. They may refer to the Six Classics: The Book Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. Confucian scholars through the ages kept interpreting these classical texts, endowing them with rich significance. Theories related to the six arts represent the basic views of the ancients in regard to world order and values. The six arts may also refer to the six skills of rituals, music, archery, charioteering, writing, and mathematics, which were the basic contents of school teaching in antiquity.
DETAILED>>The concept of six emotions first appeared in Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals. According to the book, Zitaishu (?-507 BC) proposed the six emotions when discussing the differences in etiquette and rituals. People’s six emotions are love, hate, delight, anger, sadness, and joy. Zitaishu believed that the six emotions are created by heaven and earth, and therefore contain an inherent order that is connected to heaven and earth. People should follow this inherent order and regulate and settle their six emotions.
DETAILED>>The expression is from Xunzi (313?-238BC). It aims to raise the status of social norms so that they can fully exert their role. Xunzi believed that social norms regulate human behavior and are a yardstick for judging right and wrong, and they underpin the governance of a country. Humans by nature seek external desires, and do not have the inherent quality of acting for the good. So to avoid rivalry and disorder caused by unrestrained desire, it is necessary to educate people in social norms so that they will willingly follow such norms.
DETAILED>>This is the name of a poetic style. In a broad sense, lüshi (律诗) is poetry which stresses the requirements for rhythmic rules and forms; in a narrow sense, lüshi refers to such poetry other than quatrains with five- or seven-character lines, including five-character eight-line rhythmic poetry, seven-character eight-line rhythmic poetry, and five- or seven-character rhythmic poetry with ten or more lines. In ancient times, there were no strict regulations in regard to the rhythm of Chinese poetry. By the Southern Dynasties, however, the Yongming style, also known as the ”new poetry,” emerged, and began to demand the standardization of rhyme. In the early Tang Dynasty, based on the creation and exploration of some literati, poetic rules and forms gradually took shape, and rules-based poems were called contemporary or modern style poems, metrical poems or lüshi. Poems written before the establishment of poetic rules and forms or those created by later generations that did not follow the established rules and forms were called ancient style poems. The distinctive features of lüshi include the following: first, each line has the same number of characters, either five characters or seven characters. Second, the final characters of even sentences are rhyming with the level tone. Third, the poems with five- or seven-character lines each has eight lines, which can be broken down to four couplets, or pairs of related lines, namely, the first, second, third, and fourth pairs, and the second and third pairs must both be rhymed. Fourth, the characters used in the poem are arranged by level and oblique tones according to set rules. The characters in the same line must alternate between level and oblique tones. The characters of the lines in the same pair must match in level and oblique tones, and two related lines must be relative to each other. A lüshi poem with more than eight lines, whether it has five or seven characters per line, is just like adding rhymed and parallel pairs of lines between the first and last pairs. Orderly in form and harmony, and full of rhythm, lüshi is one of the most important styles of ancient Chinese poetry.
DETAILED>>The notion of acting in accordance with human nature first appears in The Doctrine of the Mean, a section of The Book of Rites. According to this text, all humans possess an innate virtuous quality that originates from heaven. People should follow and give full play to this heavenly bestowed virtue and realize it in their words and deeds. Behavior in keeping with this inherent nature constitutes a person’s virtuous quality. Later scholars regarded this virtuous nature as the heavenly law manifested in human nature. Acting in accordance with human nature was therefore seen as following the heavenly law.
DETAILED>>Originally, the term referred to the natural order of things. Gradually its meaning was transformed into ethical principles, i.e., relationships between human beings, and fundamental rules, principles and norms regulating such relationships. Since ancient times, the Chinese people have continuously valued highly proper relationships between people. The Confucian School believed that ethical norms served as basic guidelines for being a man. So, in Confucius' times, such a philosophy prevailed. It has been one of the major features of Chinese culture. In modern times, it is translated into the English term “ethics” and the original meaning of “order of things” has died out.
All beings ceaselessly move in the alternation of birth and death, like the turning of a wheel. The notion of the “turning of the wheel,” i.e., reincarnation, assumes that the soul does not follow the ruin and disappearance of the body. That is why it can ceaselessly return and be received in a new body in the alternation of life and death. In India before the birth of Buddhism, reincarnation was already a popular concept. Because in the reincarnation an individual must passively undergo the results of the actions of previous lives, the process is generally considered to be painful. The fundamental rationale of Buddhist thought is to understand the process of life, of going and returning in this cycle, an endless, continuous array of cause and effect. It furthermore emphasizes that by eliminating causes one can reach the goal of eliminating results and finally stop the “reincarnation,” thus being liberated from this suffering.
DETAILED>>This term refers to writings of argument and persuasion in ancient times. An essay of argument and persuasion was written to explore a theoretical issue in an in-depth way (lun) and make an argument about it to persuade people (shuo). According to Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties, in writing an essay of argument and persuasion, one should not blindly copy theories developed by earlier scholars. Instead, one should have his independent views. One should draw his own persuasive conclusion on a theory or a subject by way of reasoning on the basis of numerous facts. He should find support in classics and other relevant sources, draw on previous scholarly reflection and explore an issue comprehensively and elaborately. The wording of such an essay, whose aim is to convince its readers, should be candid and sincere; such an essay should expound truths and uphold the cardinal principle of righteousness. It should increase its persuasive power and emotional appeal by using rhetorical devices and citing concrete examples. But such an essay should not be written to please the readers against one's own will, nor should it be designed to mislead them. One who writes an essay of argument and persuasion should, as Liu Xie pointed out, arrive at a truth through independent thinking, basing his judgment on his own views and conscience. He should be both incisive in wording and elaborate in argument. All these views have become essential criteria for judging the merit of essays and important rules governing their writing.
DETAILED>>The term comes from a story in Hanfeizi. In the story, mao (矛) is a spear that is said to be able to pierce anything; dun (盾) is a shield that is said to be able to be pierced by nothing. Mao and dun are a paradox to each other, so a person cannot affirm both propositions at the same time. Later, the term came to mean “contradiction,” or “inconsistency between speech and action.”
DETAILED>>This literary term is used in poetry to comment on a ruler’s moral character, policies, decrees, and performance, either in praise or criticism. Confucius（551-479BC） was the first to point out that poetry could be used to vent resentment and thus established a basic function of poetry writing by emphasizing the role The Book of Songs played in voicing grievances. In the Han Dynasty, however, poetry tended to be used as a vehicle for extolling the accomplishments and virtues of rulers. In “Introductions to Mao’s Version of The Book of Songs” and Zheng Xuan's （127-200）“Preface to On the Categories of The Book of Songs,” two influential writings on theory of poetry published during the Han Dynasty, extolment and satirical criticism was regarded as an underlying principle of poetic criticism. This principle was widely employed by poets and writers of later generations as a way of getting involved in politics and making their impact on the society. This constituted a fundamental function and an essential feature of Chinese literature.
DETAILED>>This term refers to an inner experience one gains under special circumstances. When the mind is so relaxed and peaceful, it allows one to develop an intimate appreciation and understanding of beauty and then express it in a poem. The beauty of the poem thus inspired transcends words and creates an intense aesthetic experience. Subtle insight enables the reader to appreciate the essence and lasting beauty of a poem by creating a spontaneous experience so engrossing that one becomes oblivious to both himself and the outside world. According to Buddhist, Daoist, and Metaphysical principles, “subtle” refers to the minute and profound nature of thinking, whereas “insight” is an intensely personal experience derived not from logical reasoning. Chan Buddhism promotes meditation as a way to return to the mind’s original tranquility and thus achieve a clear and simple state of mind. Such a state of mind comes from literary and artistic experience. In Canglang’s Criticism of Poetry, literary critic Yan Yu （？-1264）of the Southern Song Dynasty dealt extensively with the function and features of subtle insight in poetry writing by drawing on Chan philosophy. This book is the first one to apply Chan terms to critical writing on poetry and has thus gained great influence. The concept of subtle insight has also influenced traditional painting and calligraphy in China.
DETAILED>>Temple titles (miaohao 庙号) were accorded to deceased emperors for use at ancestral sacrifices. This practice is believed to have originated in the Shang Dynasty. The last character of such names were customarily zu (祖 progenitor) or zong (宗 ancestor). The temple names were given according to strict rules. Those with great achievements would have names ending with zu and those of high virtue would have zong. For instance, the founder of a dynasty could be named taizu (太祖) or taizong (太宗), and someone with outstanding achievements might be named gaozu (高祖) or gaozong (高宗). Like the bestowal of posthumous names to emperors, the use of temple titles was an important political tradition in Chinese culture. By honoring past emperors, they provided a standard for later generations of rulers to follow. Due to Chinese influence, Korea and Vietnam used to follow this practice.
DETAILED>>This term means court calculation on major military and state affairs. The imperial court here refers to the place for officials to deliberate on affairs of state in ancient China. The purpose of calculation prior to war was to work out a strategy based on the state’s strengths and weaknesses. Sunzi’s view was that war was not merely a contest on the battlefield, but was also influenced by political, economic and other factors. Court calculation thus had to take into account different war scenarios and review a full range of circumstances in the state. Court calculation was a necessary preparation for war.
DETAILED>>The term means life or livelihood of the people. Earning a living is often hard. Rulers should show empathy, provide necessary conditions for survival, and draw up suitable policies and systems. They should not bully or harm the people. Good state governance as well as lasting social peace and stability are dependent on this. If life is too harsh and people lack food and shelter, there will be desperation and unrest which will not benefit the rulers either. Providing a decent livelihood is the key to a peaceful and contented populace.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the evaluative judgment or view of the people in a country or region, on an issue, phenomenon or incident which touches on their common interest and which has broad societal meaning. Ancient Chinese often took the “mandate of heaven” to be the basis and highest concept for the legitimacy of political authority and for policymaking, but in fact they often regarded the “will of the people” to be the principal source, content, and manifestation of the “mandate of heaven.” They also considered it to be the fundamental principle of a country’s governance, and thought that having or losing the will of the people determined the rise or fall of a country and political power as well as the development of state affairs. It is the core of the Chinese concept of the people as the foundation of the state. All enlightened Chinese statesmen past and present have regarded the “will of the people” to be the most important factor in governance.
DETAILED>>The term originally referred to the lord of the people, the one who ruled on their behalf, i.e., the monarch. Later on it also referred to government officials. The people of ancient times regarded the “lord of the people” as “following the mandate of heaven and complying with the wishes of the people.” The people and their lord formed an organic whole like the human body and heart. In modern China, the term has become the Chinese equivalent of “democracy,” mainly meaning the fundamental principle of state power belonging to all of the people and also the political system and social conditions based on that principle. In essence democracy is government by the people who are able to exercise the right of managing state and society, and who, in this process, can freely express their opinions and safeguard their interests. Democracy is based on the principle of decision by the majority with due respect for the rights of individuals and the minority. Democracy is designed to safeguard the social status of citizens. It is a socialized form of human rights, and one of the core values conducive to a good society.
DETAILED>>Shi (实) refers to an existing object, while ming (名) refers to a name, a title or an appellation given to an object. A name is given on the basis of substance, and it cannot be separated from the knowledge of the substance. Names give expression to people’s understanding about the essence of objects and their interrelations, and the way in which they handle such interrelations. By giving names, people integrate all things and all objects into a certain order. The position and significance of an object in the whole system are determined on the basis of the name, title or the appellation given to it.
DETAILED>>This term has two meanings. First, it means to manifest rectitude. Second, it refers to upright conduct. The term was originally used to describe qualities expected of the sovereign. De (德) specifically meant fairness and decency towards the populace, in the appointment of officials, and the bestowing of rewards and punishments. Mingde (明德) as a verb was to govern in such a way. Later, the term as a noun referred to the required moral qualities of those in power. Confucianism holds that governing in a moral way is an extension of a person’s internal rectitude, hence mingde is an expression of the highest degree of morality manifested by a ruler.
DETAILED>>These were two types of writing in ancient times aimed at criticizing errors, upholding virtue, and inspiring philosophical thought. Ming (铭), meaning epigraph, is a brief account of merits and virtues inscribed on a vessel. Its sacredness and exemplary nature means such writing should be aspirational and visionary. Zhen (箴), meaning maxim, on the other hand, is intended to admonish or warn. In Chinese, it is pronounced as zhen, meaning an acupuncture needle, a traditional device for preventing or curing disease. Therefore, a zhen, should perform the role of preventing an error. Both ming or an epigraph and zhen or a maxim aim to admonish people against evildoing, promote virtue and punish vice. In the view of Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties, both types of writing should offer true and reliable information and convincing arguments and be succinct in wording and profound in significance.
The first of these two Chinese characters means simple and honest. The second one means sparing of words. People should embrace moral standards with all their hearts rather than cultivate an ostentatious appearance in an attempt to seek fame and gain. To be simple and sparing of words underscores a determination to reject vanity, avoid pretentious behavior and rhetoric, and to concentrate on cultivating one’s moral character. Confucian scholars regard being simple and honest and sparing of words as an important virtue, close to what is required for being benevolent. In this particular context, being “simple and sparing of words” has no connotation of dull-mindedness or being reticent.
Inner beauty means a fine disposition and moral character. It first appeared in “Lisao” by Qu Yuan(340?-278?BC), referring to an inherited innate moral character which was further fostered in one’s early living environment. On this basis acquired competence develops, which is achieved when one, after gaining initial understanding of the principles of things, consciously improves his moral character through self-cultivation, and strengthens one’s abilities. Later this term is used to emphasize that an author should possess an inner fine disposition and moral character, and that noble and great literature can only derive from a noble and great character.
DETAILED>>This term, neixing (内省), means introspection, or self-examination. Introspection was a form of moral cultivation advocated by the Confucians. They felt that while moral cultivation certainly required words and deeds to adhere externally to moral standards, it was fundamentally dependent on the internal formation of moral awareness. Hence, while they were concerned with people’s words and deeds, they placed even more emphasis on cultivation of the inner self. They favored constant examination of one’s true intentions, as well as the formation and observance of internal moral awareness.
DETAILED>>Nanxi (南戏), the Southern Opera, refers to the Han ethnic opera from the late Northern Song to the late Ming and the early Qing dynasties. The opera was created in the Wenzhou region when the Song court fled south. At the time, it was also known as chuanqi (传奇 drama), xiwen (戏文 play) as well as the Wenzhou Zaju (温州杂剧 Wenzhou Opera), the Yongjia Zaju (永嘉杂剧 Yongjia Opera), and the Yongjia Xiqu (永嘉戏曲 Yongjia Play). Drawing on local folk singing styles, the Southern Opera first developed on the basis of village operas without any traces of palace styles and rhymes, and it was noted for being natural and smooth in singing. A Tale of the Pipa, a play by Gao Ming (1301？–1370？), marked the maturity of the Southern Opera. The Southern Opera inherited the Song zaju and heralded the emergence of the legendary play of the Ming Dynasty. Legendary plays were long enough to accommodate multiple roles and all performers sang. The Southern Opera masterpieces include The Romance of a Hairpin, The Story of the White Rabbit, The Moonlight Pavilion, and The Killing of a Dog. Many operas in southern China were created based on the Southern Opera.
DETAILED>>Addictive music allures and entraps people with its decadent tones. It roughly equates to “the music of the states of Zheng and Wei.”Confucianism believed that the music of Zheng, Wei, and some other states in the Spring and Autumn Period was ornate and frivolous, harmful to the moral development of society. So it should be rejected as “addictive music.” Music style changes along with the times. Even during the Spring and Autumn Period, both ancient music and new music were played. Ancient music was elegant, handed down from earlier times, and extolled by Confucian scholars. New music was popular with contemporaries or developed by later generations. Noble and graceful, ancient music could rectify people’s minds and make them conform to Confucian moral norms. Therefore, ancient music was called “music conforming to virtue.” New music, by contrast, disturbed people’s minds and made them wallow in sensual pleasures, corroding their minds and will. It was thus referred to as “addictive music.” Confucianism praised music conforming to virtue and opposed addictive music.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the name of a period given by the ruling emperor to indicate and record the years of his period of rule in ancient China. When a new emperor ascended the throne, he would replace the reign title of his predecessor with a new one so as to mark the beginning of a new era. This practice started by Liu Che (156-87 BC), Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. He called his reign jianyuan (建元, 140-135 BC). Later on, this practice became a rule. An emperor might also change his reign title if he happened to see something that he believed to be extremely auspicious or in case of an event of great significance. During his reign, an emperor might use one title all through his reign or change it as many as a dozen times. People called the first year of a reign jiyuan (纪元). If the emperor changed his reign title in a certain year, it was called gaiyuan (改 元). When the Republic of China was founded in 1912, it abolished the reign title practice and began to record the time as the first year of the Republic. The People's Republic of China, established in 1949, adopted the Christian calendar. Influenced by ancient China, Korea and Vietnam used to have reign titles too. Japan still uses reign title to this day.
DETAILED>>The recollection of the Buddha is a mental practice of developing concentration on a pure object. It often comes under such a category as “the six recollections” or “the ten recollections” along with the recollections of dharma, sangha, morality, breathing, and so on. Among them, the recollection of the Buddha is the most common practice of contemplation. It instructs one to recollect the supremacy and rarity of the Buddha so that one can eliminate distraction and prepare oneself for more profound meditation. Such recollection can be carried out in a variety of ways. For example, chanting “Namu Amida Butsu” (literally “I salute Amitābha”) is a popular practice of the Pure Land School.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the state of having left samsara, the circle of rebirth. The literal meaning of nirvana is extinction or blowing off, in contrast to affliction, which is burning like fire. It refers to the attainment of a purified state where one attains enlightenment and eradicates affliction, birth, and death. This is the primary goal for all Buddhist practices. There are two types of nirvana: with and without remainder. In “nirvana with remainder,” the practioner's body, owing to the karmic results of his or her previous lives, remains even after the enlightenment. In “nirvana without remainder,” where the karma has been totally eliminated, and his or her physical form and consciousness are brought to an end, he or she is delivered from samsara for good. Mahayana scriptures reinvent the notion of “nirvana” by interpreting it as the perfect comprehension of the ultimate reality, so to proclaim that essentially nirvana and the mundane world are not exclusive to each other.
DETAILED>>This term is used to describe varying degrees of denseness with regard to color, smell or taste. In the fields of art and literature, it refers to the denseness or lightness of a painting’s color, ornateness or plainness of literary language, boldness or restraint in artistic style, or to directness or opaqueness of emotional expression. Denseness and lightness are relative to each other. In traditional Chinese painting, for example, the colors chosen can either be dense or light, but they should not be so dense as to be crude or so light as to be insipid. Ink wash painting pays particular attention to the denseness or lightness of color, aiming to achieve a balance between the two. This implies a harmony between the bright and the shady, the front and the rear views, the tangible and the intangible, density and sparsity, and the long- and short-range views. An ideal painting expects denser and lighter hues to set each other off beautifully. This requirement applies also to other genres of art.
DETAILED>>The term refers to an exegetical classification in which a Buddhist school, in order to bridge theological differences of various teachings or establish its own position and authority, ranks the significance and status of various scriptures. It is also known as jiaopan (classification of the tenets). Different schools and sects adopt different systems of classification. The common practice is to begin with the easy ones, working all the way up to the most profound, and it usually ends with one's own school as the supreme. Such a practice may take its origin in Indian Buddhism, and the exegetical communities of the Sui and Tang dynasties have particular interest in establishing their own classification. For example, the "five periods and eight teachings" of the Tiantai School divides the Buddha's instruction chronologically into five phases: (1) Huayan or Avataṃsaka (Garland), (2) Ahan or Āgama (Scriptures), (3) Fangdeng or Vaipulya (Broad and equal teaching exemplified by Mahayana), (4) Dabore or Mahāprajñāpāramitā (Great Perfection of Wisdom), and (5) Fahua-Niepan or Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-Mahāparinirvāṇa (Lotus Sutra and The Final Nirvana); or pedagogically into four classes: the sudden, gradual, esoteric, and indeterminate teaching; or in terms of the theoretical inclination, into four classes: the Tripiṭaka, common, distinct, and comprehensive or perfect teachings. These synthetic categorizations are tinted by distinct local sectarian tendencies, hence had profound influence on the acculturation of Buddhism in China.
DETAILED>>Pengyou (朋友) are people who are not kin but share the same aspirations and sentiments and can help each other. Representing a close social relationship between these people, friendship is one of the “five relationships” among humans defined by Confucianism, namely, relationships between father and son, sovereign and subject, husband and wife, elder brother and younger brother, and between friends. Peng (朋) originally was an ancient monetary unit resembling two bunches of shells or jade stringed together. It was extended to mean disciples who follow the same teacher, namely, people who study together to improve each other’s knowledge and moral behavior. An ancient ideographic form of the character you (友) was two hands reaching in the same direction, which means comrades sharing the same interests and goals. The creation and fostering of this relationship is crucial to forming the society beyond blood ties, and to forming one’s character as well. For this reason, the Chinese have always revered moral standards as their fundamental principle and integrity as the basic norm governing their relationships. This applies to both relationships between people and relations among countries.
DETAILED>>Natural grace, a term for poetic study (often in contrast to the “melancholy” poetic style), refers to free and unconstrained aesthetic style and artistic appeal in poetic works. It gives expression to the imagination of the poet, the natural and free disposition of his spirit, and his pursuit of aesthetic enjoyment. When in such a state of mind, the poet is “totally absorbed in his interaction with heaven and earth,” roaming freely in boundless time and space. The concept represents a poetic style in which the poet and what he portrays in his poem merge into a natural whole.
DETAILED>>This concept means appraising someone’s character, ability, conduct and approach, which was a common practice from the late Han through the Jin and Wei dynasties. The practice was considered a good one when it was first introduced, as people were judged by their moral character and ability, not their family background, making it an important means of selecting officials based on their competence. Appraisal of others was a popular conversational topic among the people in the Wei and Jin dynasties. However, such appraisal gradually shifted towards people’s family status, power and influence in the late Wei and early Jin dynasties, which led to the establishment of the nine-rank system for selecting and appointing government officials. There was also a shift in making appraisals away from people towards poetry, paintings and calligraphic works. Thus making appraisals played a less important role in selecting officials while assuming a more significant role in the appreciation of art. This influenced literary criticism in the Southern and Northern Dynasties and led to the creation of works of literary critique on poetry, paintings and calligraphy.
DETAILED>>Pinli, meaning diplomatic etiquette and protocol for the visits by the lords to the king and by one lord to another, is an important part of political activity in ancient China. Depending on such factors as the status of visitor and host and the purpose and frequency of the visits, diplomatic etiquette was conducted at three levels: between two ducal lords ruling different states, involving a ministerial-level envoy, and involving senior officials. As the political conditions changed, pinli later also referred to the diplomatic ceremonial for visits involving rulers of countries and other independent political entities. The rules observed when paying tribute to a king and at other visits indicated the status and mutual relationships of the different political entities that were represented by the participants on such occasions. Later on pinli came to mean the formalities performed by the man’s side when getting engaged to a woman.
DETAILED>>As the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit word "sama," pingdeng (平等) means the same level with no difference. As a fundamental concept of Buddhism, it originally meant that there was no difference between the various castes. Later on, in Mahayana Buddhism and Buddhism adapted to the Chinese conditions, such as Zen Buddhism, it was believed that there was no difference between dharmas and between all sentient beings in terms of Buddha-nature and ultimate meaning. Buddhism stresses the value of equality in several respects, of which the most important one is equality for all sentient beings (there is no difference between living things). This is generally considered to mean equality for everyone. In modern times, the Western concept of equality was translated as pingdeng, in the sense that as a member of society, everyone enjoys the same status, opportunities and rights in social relations and social activities.
DETAILED>>This means to maintain the prices of goods at an appropriate level. It was an economic measure used in ancient China. Specifically, designated official positions and agencies were established which controlled certain important materials. These were sold when market prices were excessively high and bought when prices were excessively low. In this way, merchants were prevented from profiteering by hoarding goods, and prices were kept steady.Implicit in this approach was the idea that government has a responsibility to regulate markets. It did so by using economic measures and market actions; the goals of market regulation by the government were to suppress private monopolies, ensure balance and fairness, safeguard the interests of the general public, and ensure economic and social stability.
Bodhi refers to the noblest form of wisdom, which is capable of eliminating affliction. The literal meaning of the term is "enlightenment" or "awakening." It refers to the wisdom that can do away with afflictions of all kinds, which hinder the believer's progress towards his or her ultimate enlightenment. Admittedly, bodhi is the ultimate destination of all Buddhist practices. But different approaches result in different levels of bodhi. Chinese Buddhism is inclined to uphold the ideas of "inherent awareness" or "[rediscovered] true enlightenment," arguing that the result of one's practice is based on none other than one's inherent wisdom.
DETAILED>>This refers to a worldview or lifestyle that seeks to reconcile differences and contradictions among things. In “On Seeing Things as Equal”, Zhuangzi（369？-286 BC） analyzes the unpredictable nature of the world to reveal that different or opposing things are inherently interconnected. In striving to understand the world, one should therefore first of all identify the interconnectedness among all things in the world, see all as equal, and abandon personal preferences, likes and dislikes. In this way, one’s heart can be above all material things and free from their constraints and influences, and the differences and contradictions among things will no longer burden one’s mind or one’s life.
DETAILED>>Qi (奇) means surprise while zheng (正) means direct and normal. First advanced by Laozi, the concept has two main meanings. First, it is a military term about two opposing ways of fighting. Zheng means meeting the enemy head-on based on an understanding of its intention，while Qi means keeping one’s intention to oneself and launching surprise attack and laying ambush on the enemy in order to secure surprise victory. Zheng and qi need to be applied in a coordinated way. While a military term, qizheng is also used to deal with daily affairs. Second, as a term of literary and art criticism, it means an article is pure and original in terms of theme and elegant and stylish in terms of diction. Liu Xie (465? –520) of the Southern Dynasty first introduced qizheng in literary criticism to oppose attaching excessive importance to form and novelty, a trend which was popular in the literary circles in the Qi and Liang dynasties. Liu Xie maintained that literary creation should be based on Confucian classics in terms of theme, to be embellished by stylish rhetoric. He believed that pure thought (zheng) must come before rhetoric (qi) so that an essay would be original in terms of theme and beautiful but unexaggerated in terms of diction. The term qizheng was later also used in literary criticism of poetry and opera.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the emotional strength and the vitality of a literary work. It was first used during the Southern Dynasties, resonating with the social practice of making comment on people. The term was used to describe the emotional vigor and forcefulness of artistic works such as poetry, essays, calligraphy, and paintings. It is similar in meaning to fenggu (风骨), but contrary to fengzi (风姿), a term meaning external elegance of an artistic work.
DETAILED>>This term means high aspiration and moral principles. Aspiration refers to the powerful innate drives such as beliefs and courage that underpin one’s ambition and enables its realization, whereas moral principles guard and sustain one’s moral and righteous behavior. Today, the term in a general sense means to uphold justice as well as an undaunted spirit that remains unwavering and unyielding before any coercion and seduction. This type of spiritual quality has been championed by men of justice throughout generations and is regarded as the bedrock to anchor oneself in the world. For several thousands of years, this principle of moral integrity has guided China through thick and thin towards prosperity and longevity.
DETAILED>>Qixiang (气象), originally a term about the general state of scenery and physical objects in nature, also refers to the prevailing features of a society in a given period of time. This description carries the meaning of great appeal and impact as well as scenery and objects. When applied to art, it refers to the overall style and appeal in a piece of artistic work. It connotes grandeur and magnificence, and is often used in conjunction with such words as “heroic,” “immense,” and “sublime.” Literary critics of the Tang Dynasty began using the term to comment on the style and features of a poem or an essay. Since the Song Dynasty, the term has become an important concept in literary criticism, used to critique the style and artistic flair of poems, essays, calligraphy, and paintings. It is often thought to reflect the prevailing features in literature and art of a particular period. For instance, during the prime of the Tang Dynasty, the term referred to the appeal of both poems and the poets who wrote them.
DETAILED>>This refers to the momentum, charm, and vitality in paintings as well as in calligraphic and literary works which together create artistic appeals. The term was first used to refer only to painting, meaning that the proper use of ink and the painting brush could vividly present natural landscape, make the painting flow with vitality, and enable viewers to appreciate its underlying allure. Later, the term was extended to cover poetry, essay, calligraphy and other literary creations. Artistic appeal, which is similar in meaning to such terms as artistic charm and literary charm, is an aesthetic appreciation gained through experiences and feelings. Expressed in a work of art, artistic appeal reflects an author’s unique approach to art and inspiration, something that he is born with rather than acquired.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the knowledge obtained about something before it happens or exists. It first appears in Laozi, referring to the knowledge one has obtained about something before others get to know about it. Those who believe that they can have such foreknowledge tend to consider themselves as prophets. However, the Daoist School believes that such foreknowledge is only personal understanding about things, and can hardly reveal the true nature of things they allegedly know about. If a sovereign ruler governs according to such foreknowledge, his rule is likely to be detrimental to the well-being of its people and leads to an upheaval.
DETAILED>>“Cleverness” is a synonym for ingenuity, intelligence or exquisite skills. “Clumsiness,” on the other hand, means awkwardness, dullness of the mind or lacking in skill. In the field of art, “cleverness” refers to an ingenious, effortless state of creation whereby general layout, wording, and writing techniques together are at their natural best. It stresses the ornamental function of artistic form. Many theorists favor the idea of retaining“clumsiness” but oppose deliberate manipulation of skill. “Clumsiness” here isn’t the same as shoddy or of a low grade. It means a perfectly natural state of being, or a piece of writing so excellent by its own right as to lose all traces of artificial ingenuity. However, this “clumsiness” should be attained naturally. If a writer deliberately pursues clumsiness, it will only backfire. Cleverness and clumsiness are complementary to each other. Any pretense should be abandoned in favor of what is natural. Only then can artistic excellence be achieved.
DETAILED>>This term refers to love for one’s kin and particularly for one’s parents. It is a natural affection, and it also refers to the way in which such feeling is expressed. Confucianism holds that such a love should also be extended to others so that it will foster public virtue. Excessive affection for one’s kin, however, can lead to favoritism in one’s conduct. So righteousness is proposed by Confucianism as a means to curb excessive love for one’s kin.
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Knowledge from personal experience is a type of knowledge and a way of acquiring it proposed by the Mohist School. In their opinion, knowledge is gained in three ways: by personal experience, by hearsay, and by explanation. To learn from personal experience means learning by examining or getting involved with things. It is a direct way of gaining knowledge.
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It is one of the four major traditional festivals, namely, the Spring Festival, Qingming Festival, the Dragon Boat Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, that are celebrated by the Chinese. It is the only Chinese festival which occurs on one of the solar terms of the traditional calendar, usually on April 4, 5 or 6. Prior to the Tang Dynasty, Qingming functioned primarily as one of the 24 solar terms that reflected natural changes of seasons and were closely associated with timing of agricultural activities. After the Tang and Song dynasties, Qingming took the place of the Hanshi (“Cold Food”) Festival, and the practices of sweeping ancestral graves and eating cold food became prominent features of the Qingming Festival. At this time of year, with the coming of spring, all living things are bursting with vitality, and people go on country outings, plant willows, fly kites and play on swings. Today, Qingming has remained a festival of special significance to the Chinese. On May 20, 2006, it was put on the first list of national-level intangible cultural heritages by the Chinese government.
DETAILED>>The educational function of a literary work is best fulfilled through discreet emotional influence, based on the belief that a literary work can affect and purify the reader's soul through descriptions of love between men and women and of true feeling available in the world to finally influence and transform social morality. This term was first used by Feng Menglong (1574-1646), a late-Ming writer of popular fiction. Feng emphasized that "feeling" is an instinct or natural inclination of humans, starting with affection between man and woman and then spreading to relationships between monarch and ministers, father and son, or brothers and friends. Without true feeling, a literary work cannot touch the heart and morally edify people. In imbuing moral instruction with true feeling, Feng did not intend to do away with ethical reasoning. In fact, he held that true feeling is far more fundamental and authentic, adhering more closely to human nature. The theory of imbuing moral education with true feeling arose from a general respect for sincerity and authenticity which burgeoned around the middle period of the Ming Dynasty, reflecting also Feng's literary view and outlook on life. He spent decades compiling and writing popular fictions, thus bringing his ideas to fruition.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the mutual dependence and integration of an author’s description of scenery and objects, and his expression of feelings in his literary creation. Qing (情) is an author’s inner feelings, and jing (景) refers to external scenery or an object. The theory of sentiment and scenery stresses integration of the two, maintaining that sentiment can hardly be aroused without scenery and that scenery or an object cannot be appreciated without sentiment. This term appeared in the Song Dynasty. Compared with earlier notions about sentiment and scenery, this one is more emphatic about fusing the depiction of scenery with the expression of feelings, and the process of creation with that of appreciation.
DETAILED>>The concept of poverty and prosperity refers to two different situations individuals may experience in life. It encompasses various aspects of one’s life, including material wealth, social status, and reputation. Generally, people aspire to achieve prosperity and avoid being in a state of poverty. At the same time, people also place great value on whether individuals can show resilience and adhere to moral principles when facing adversity.
DETAILED>>Qu and Song here refer respectively to Qu Yuan (340?-278？ BC) and Song Yu, both being poets of the State of Chu of the Warring States Period. The former was the pioneer of chuci poetry and a great romantic poet. His most representative work was titled Li Sao. The latter, said to be Qu's student, excelled in the writing of Chu-style ci and fu poetry after Qu passed away, his representative work being “Jiu Bian” (“The Nine Stanzas” or “The Nine Changes”). Later generations referred to the two as Qu-Song, though Song Yu's literary attainments were far inferior to those of Qu Yuan.
The term means to conceptualize an aesthetic feeling by selecting images that best express a poet’s sentiments and appreciation. The term qujing(取境) was coined by the Tang monk poet Jiaoran (720-796?) in his Poetic Styles. After conducting a review of how poets from the Six Dynasties to the mid-Tang Dynasty wrote poems, he concluded that to write poems, one must structure one’s thoughts ingeniously so as to generate a uniquely original conception with no trace of clichés. Then, after some deep thinking, an inspiration will arise and his imagination will run free. In this way, the poet can create a poem with a fine visionary world. Although the conception may be highly original, ultimately the style of the work should be simple and natural without any traces of having been laboriously crafted. This term is closely related to the terms jingjie (境界) and yijing(意境); together, they are part of a series of terms dealing with jing (境) in classical Chinese poetics.
DETAILED>>The way of man refers to the code of conduct that people must observe and also the relations and norms that keep human society on the right track. The way of man stands in contrast to the way of heaven. When Western culture was introduced to China in modern times, the term gained the meaning of respect and care for people’s lives, well-being, dignity, freedom, and individuality.
DETAILED>>This refers to the order or hierarchy of human relations and the codes of conduct for people at different levels of the hierarchy. The term, first coined by Mencius (372?-289 BC), is about five human relationships: those between father and son, between monarch and minister, between husband and wife, between siblings, and between friends. It is also known as the five bonds. Such human relations were considered the basic framework of social order, with precedence of senior over junior, of close relatives over distant ones, and between different social ranks all clearly set. Different codes of conduct were to be followed for different human relations.
DETAILED>>Renwen (人文) encompasses the cultural and ethical progress created by rites, music, education, codes, and systems as well as a social order which is hierarchical but harmonious. Renwen is in contrast to tianwen (天文), the study of celestial bodies including the sun, moon, and stars. Renwen also refers to human affairs in general, that is, behaviors, customs, and the human state. Under the influence of Western culture in the modern period, renwen came to mean cultural phenomena in human society as well as the humanities, which are academic disciplines that study human culture.
DETAILED>>The “human heart” here refers to human awareness of outside attractions and desires for such attractions. It is in contrast with consciousness of moral principles, and was used in classics such as the “Old Text” version of The Book of History, and Xunzi. Confucian scholars in the Song Dynasty attached great importance to both concepts, and had interpretations and expositions about them. It was believed that the conscious mind, or heart involved two aspects. The first is the human desires for the outside world that were aroused by sensory organs such as eyes and ears, which is called renxin, or the “human heart.” The second is the consciousness of moral principles, which is called daoxin, or the “moral mind.” “Human desires” is brought about by the bodily senses and it is selfish. Therefore, the role of the consciousness of moral principles needs to be allowed full play so that excessive human desires which will lead to harm can be held in check.
Rule by man, as opposed to rule by law, is the most important ruling concept in the Confucian political philosophy in ancient China. It calls for ruling a state and its people through orderly human relations, moral standards, and other value systems. Rule by man emphasizes the fundamental role and importance of people in conducting political affairs. It emphasizes that a ruler should have a lofty and noble character, select competent officials with integrity to run the state, and educate and influence the general public. In Chinese history, this concept of governance was designed to achieve a harmonious relationship between the sovereign, his officials, and his subjects, which meant “benevolent governance.”
DETAILED>>This term refers to an ongoing process of self-renewal, which also brings new life to the people, society, and the nation. This process features continuous progress and improvement. It represents a tenacious and innovative spirit that permeates all levels of “self-cultivation, family regulation, state governance, bringing peace to all under heaven.”
DETAILED>>Honor and disgrace are evaluations of and feedback on the conduct of individuals or groups. People are judged on socially accepted values. One is honored if one complies with these values in both words and actions; and one is disgraced if one violates such values. Honor and disgrace also refer to how individuals or groups regard their own conduct morally in terms of honor or disgrace. These moral sentiments originate from people’s identification with values. However, different schools of thought tend to espouse different values.
DETAILED>>This term refers to improving a literary work by refining its basic content and making the presentation concise. Refining and deleting is a basic process in literary writing. The term was first mentioned by Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties in his The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It means that in producing a literary work, the author should select the right elements from all the material he has, delete unnecessary parts and keep the essence, and write in a concise way to best present what he has in mind and to best suit the styles of writing. It shows that literary creation is a process of constantly striving for perfection in terms of both content and form. This idea had a great impact on the theory of theatrical writing in the Ming and Qing dynasties.
DETAILED>>The term means the three standards used to measure the truth of an assertion. The Chinese character biao (表) in this term means standard or norm. Mozi (468?-376 BC) believed in judging right or wrong by following the three standards. The first one was the successful way in which the ancient sage kings had ruled. The second one was the actual experience of the people. The third one was whether one’s words and deeds actually served the interests of the state and people. Mozi established his school of thought on the basis of the three standards and used them to evaluate and criticize the doctrines of other schools.
DETAILED>>In Buddhism, the universe of sentient beings is composed of three realms: (1) the realm of desire (kāmadhātu), where the mind is motivated by sensual pleasures; (2) the realm of subtle forms (rūpadhātu), where the mind becomes uninterested in sensual objects but still engaged in conceptual mental activities; and (3) the realm of the formless (ārūpyadhātu), the higher level of a mind free from desire and conceptualization. Sentient beings are all subject to past and future deeds (karma), therefore trapped in the cycle of rebirth within the three realms. It is thus called the wheel of sufferings in the three realms. The idea of the three realms of existence reveals how the Buddhists understand the universe on the one hand, and how it is in relevance to the different stages of meditative achievements on the other.
DETAILED>>The term refers to three metaphysical works: Laozi, Zhuangzi, and The Book of Changes. During the Han Dynasty, the study of the Five Classics was the prevailing trend; but during the Wei and Jin dynasties, the way of thinking changed considerably. Scholars turned their attention to Laozi, Zhuangzi, and The Book of Changes. The annotations by such people as He Yan (?-249), Wang Bi (226-249), Xiang Xiu (227?-272), and Guo Xiang (?-312) gave these classics new meanings. The Three Metaphysical Classics were the focus of discourse among leading scholars of the Wei and Jin dynasties, and they were regarded by scholars of metaphysic learning as a source of inspiration when they expressed their philosophical thinking. The study of the Three Metaphysical Classics focused on probing the contradiction between individual life and the outside world. It also fully demonstrated conflict and complementarity between the thinking of Confucian and Daoist scholars.
DETAILED>>To hold a funeral and mourn one who has passed away is an important ritual in the lives of the Chinese. In ancient China, there were detailed rules for such rites, based on the relations between the mourner and the deceased, such as the length of mourning, dress code, and the specific procedures to pay last respects to the deceased. By observing such rites, people expressed their grief over and love for the deceased. At the same time, mourning rites also served to control mourners' excessive grief, so as not to affect their health. Rites for mourners differed according to their relations with the deceased and represented the ancient people's understanding of the norms governing human relations. Today, both the form of mourning and the human relations reflected in such rites have changed along with changes in social customs.
DETAILED>>Rewards and punishments are important means of regulating people’s behavior. In ancient times, it was believed that both heaven and terrestrial rulers could implement rewards and punishments. The implementation of rewards and punishments is based on people’s desire to seek benefits and avoid harm. Rewards bring benefits, while punishments bring harm. Therefore, people usually seek rewards and avoid punishments. If rewards and punishments are applied according to clear and fixed standards, with rewards given for conforming behavior and punishments given for non-conforming behavior, people will follow these standards and regulate their behavior accordingly. However, if there are no clear and fixed standards or if rewards and punishments are misused, disorder may arise in people’s behavior and social order.
DETAILED>>The term has two meanings. One is the supreme ruler of the universe, also known as the Ruler of Heaven. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, wizards were the intermediaries between humans and the supreme ruler. They asked for his orders by means of divination and conveyed them to humans. The other meaning is the supreme ruler of an empire or dynasty, that is, the emperor or monarch, including those of remote antiquity and those who had died; each was referred to as Son of Heaven. After Christianity was introduced to China, missionaries used this term as a translation of the word “God.”
DETAILED>>This term means conforming to the superior in applying standards for right and wrong. It is one of the basic positions of the Mohist school. Mozi （468？-376 BC) believed that in the absence of a state and political power, confusion over right and wrong would give rise to conflict and fighting, causing harm to the antagonists. Therefore, he held that worthy and talented men should be the Son of Heaven and his officials at various levels. Everyone should adopt their superior’s standards for judging right and wrong in words and deeds, and ultimately follow the ruler’s standards. The sovereign ruler himself should submit to Heaven’s will. The Mohists believed that conforming upwardly was an important means to ensure great order under heaven.
DETAILED>>In ancient China, many schools of thought advocated “exalting the worthy” or similar ideas. They asked those in power to employ worthy and able men and make effective use of them in governance by assigning them positions and responsibilities corresponding to their virtues. Virtue and talent were to be the first and foremost criterion in selecting officials. To the Confucians, empowering the virtuous and able was a useful complement to loving and caring for kinsmen. To the Mohists, empowering the virtuous and able was an important prerequisite for governance that “conforms upwardly.”
She (社) is the God of the Earth, and ji (稷 millet), represents the God of the Five Grains. Chinese kings and vassals of ancient times offered sacrifices to these gods. As the Han people depended on farming, these gods were the most important primitive objects of worship. The ancient rulers offered sacrifices to the gods of the Earth and the Five Grains every year to pray for peace and good harvests in the country. As a result, sheji became a symbol of the nation and state power.
DETAILED>>The rites of archery were an important element in ancient Chinese etiquette. Archery was one of the six basic skills that scholars in ancient China needed to master. For a host and his guests, rites of archery involved three rounds of shooting. Based on the status of the participants and the occasion, there were three kinds of contests: the great contest (dashe) hosted by the king and ducal lords to select those to take part in sacrificial ceremonies, local contests (xiangshe) between scholars invited by local governors and held on the campuses of state-owned schools, and banquet contests (yanshe) hosted by the king or ducal lords when entertaining their officials. In such arrow shooting contests, archers must not only try hard to hit the target, they also needed to maintain the right stance and attitude. If one missed the target, he should think about whether he had maintained the right attitude. These requirements and the search for the cause of failure in oneself were in line with the requirements of moral cultivation. Therefore, in addition to being a contest of shooting skills, archery was important in fostering moral cultivation.
This means teaching by one’s deeds as opposed to explaining in words. Originally it referred to a ruler who should not just issue orders and tell people what to do. Rather, he should set an example to his subjects with his own actions as a model of virtue, thereby achieving the goal of good order in society. This has something in common with the principle of “rule by man.” Later it turned into an educational concept: Teachers should not only teach their students by words; they should also, in their own actual conduct, be an example to the students in scholarship and cultivation of virtue, so as to guide them and reach the goal of education. There are well-known sayings in China like “making oneself an example” and “to be a model teacher to others."
DETAILED>>The term refers to a state of mind in the process of literary and artistic creation. It suggests that the author, fully inspired by emotions, transcends the constraint of time and space, and enters into a state of free imagination or a special mood for literary and artistic creation, before producing a natural and beautiful work of literature or art, either in language or in imagery. This term was popularly used in literary and artistic theories of the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties. Liu Xie （465？-520）of the Southern Dynasties devoted one chapter especially to this term in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. Imaginative contemplation is the unique mental activity in literary and artistic
This term refers to the subtle elegance of literary and artistic works. It was originally used to depict a person’s mien and manner. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, the propriety inherent in a person was valued, whereas during the previous Han Dynasty, a person’s external appearance was stressed. Later on, this concept was incorporated into the theory of calligraphy and painting to refer to the elegant subtlety of a work. In the Ming Dynasty, the concept was extended to the theory of poetry, and elegant subtlety became a requirement for composing poetry. Later, Wang Shizhen（1634—1711） of the Qing Dynasty further developed the theory of elegant subtlety. In compiling The Elegant Subtlety of the Tang Poetry, he elaborated on his aesthetic views. In his writings on poetry theory, Wang Shizhen championed these views and created his own unique poetical aesthetics, enriching the theory of elegant subtlety, and making it a major school of the Qing-dynasty poetics.
DETAILED>>A kind of ethical self-cultivation advanced by the Confucian school of thought, the term has two different meanings: First, du (独) is understood as at leisure and alone. When people are alone, without someone else’s supervision, they easily act in an undisciplined and immoral way. Shendu (慎独) requires being careful with one’s conduct when being alone, consciously following morality and the requirements of etiquette. Second, du is understood as an inner true state. People may in their words and actions manifest what is in accord with morality and the requirements of etiquette, but in their heart they do not accept or pursue any morality or etiquette. Shendu requires that one makes efforts in one’s heart, so that one’s inner world is in agreement with the words and actions required by morality and etiquette.
DETAILED>>The term stands for perpetual change. According to The Book of Changes, shengsheng (生生) can be understood at two levels. First, in regard to the existence of all things, it is the interaction of yin and yang that drives the process of the endless cycle of birth, rebirth, and change of heaven, earth, and all things. This process is a fundamental attribute of the universe, and the source of ethical behavior. Second, as a term in divination, it refers to the alternation of yin and yang lines and the fact that all elements in the symbol system of The Book of Changes are in a perpetual state of change.
DETAILED>>Shengxiao (生肖) in Chinese refers to the twelve animals that make up the Chinese Zodiac. The ancient Chinese included in this list eleven animals closely associated with farming, plus the dragon, a legendary animal which has cultural symbolic meaning in China. They were then associated with the twelve Earthly Branches (in a twelve-year cycle) to each represent a year. Thus a person’s year of birth is also associated with a specific animal. Combining the Zodiac with the Branches produces the following order: zishu (子鼠rat), chouniu (丑牛ox), yinhu (寅虎tiger), maotu (卯兔rabbit), chenlong (辰龙dragon), sishe (巳蛇snake), wuma (午马horse), weiyang (未羊sheep), shenhou (申猴monkey), youji (酉鸡rooster), xugou (戌狗dog), and haizhu (亥猪pig). The Zodiac had already entered into use by the Eastern Han Dynasty, and has been a distinctive feature of Chinese culture and folk tradition ever since. Today, the influence of the Chinese Zodiac culture can still be found in the tradition of a person’s animal birth year, marriage and fortune-telling, during festivals and in folk arts, like paper-cutting.
DETAILED>>This term refers to rules and practices which create tonal and rhythmical beauty in prose and verse by blending sounds, rhythms and tones together. Zhou Yong, a scholar of the Qi and Liang periods of the Southern Dynasties, divided the intonation of the Chinese language into four tones: the level tone, the rising tone, the entering tone and the falling tone. On that basis, Shen Yue (441-513), another scholar, proposed his rules for poetry writing, whereby high pitches are countered by low ones and level and rising tones are countered by entering and falling tones. He also analyzed the eight types of poor matches between tones, initial consonants and ensuing vowels. In his representative work The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520) pointed out that rhythmical beauty in poetry can be created by using various tones alternately (i.e., countering even and rising tones with entering and falling tones). Likewise, beauty of echoing can be produced by adopting the same vowel at the end of each poetic line. Liu Xie extended this rule of tonal and rhythmical harmony to other genres of writing to both ensure readability and express his love for the beauty of chanting. His effort shows Southern Dynasties scholars' pursuit of the beauty of formalism, which later inspired Tang Dynasty literary figures to create neat and beautiful metrical poetry. The early theories of metrical beauty, drawing heavily from traditional musical terminology, later developed into the phonology of the Chinese language.
DETAILED>>It refers to a person of consummate virtue. Sages were regarded by the ancient Chinese as having the highest level of character and integrity. They knew the way of heaven and the hearts of people, and could thus make rules and regulate human ethics. With their exemplary statements and behavior, they were paragons of virtue. But scholars have different interpretations as to what sagely virtues mean. According to Confucian scholars, sages are those who practice virtues such as benevolence and righteousness in a perfect way and foster moral virtues in others. In the Daoist view, however, sages should adopt a "non-action" approach to life, accept people for what they are, and let them do as they please.
DETAILED>>A king of great virtue, namely, a sage, by observing the way of heaven and based on his understanding of human nature, establishes social norms and laws to regulate public lives. What he says and does are thus the model for all to follow. If a king possesses such great virtue, he is called a sage king. According to Confucianism, if a sage becomes the king, he would create an ideal state of governance. However, those whom Confucian scholars considered as sages never had the opportunity to become kings after Confucius’ (551-479 BC) time.
DETAILED>>This term has a two-fold meaning. First, it refers to any work that contains critiques or commentaries on poets, poems, schools of poetry, anecdotes about poets, and textual research. This type of work is a constituent part of scholarly inquiry into classical Chinese poetry. The tradition of offering commentaries on poetry had its origin in “The Critique of Poetry” by Zhong Rong (?-518?) of the Liang Period of the Southern Dynasties. The first somewhat complete commentary on poetry and poets was Ouyang Xiu’s Criticism of Poetry, by Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) of the Northern Song Dynasty. The Song Dynasty’s most renowned work of poetry commentary, which also had the greatest influence on scholars of later generations, was Canglang’s Criticism on Poetry by Yan Yu (?-1264) of the Southern Song Dynasty. After that, notes of this kind became a principal medium through which to offer commentaries on poetry and propose theories of poetry composition. The Ming and Qing dynasties boasted the largest number of works of poetry commentary. The best of such works were Desultory Remarks on Poetry from Ginger Studio by Wang Fuzhi (1619-1692) and Suiyuan Remarks on Poetry by Yuan Mei (1716-1798), both from the Qing Dynasty. During the Ming and Qing periods, Commentaries on Poetry from Past Dynasties, A Sequel to Commentaries on Poetry from Past Dynasties and Qing Dynasty Commentaries on Poetry were also published, all of which contain important works of poetry critiquing of all dynasties. Commentaries/critiques on poetry essentially shun a comprehensive and elaborate theoretical system and focus instead on articulating the critic’s personal, nuanced appreciation and evaluation of poetry. Each of them contains only a few terse remarks, airing views on finer points in poetic composition and revealing personal feelings and thoughts on rules governing artistic creation. Commentaries on poetry are themselves highly literary and deserve to be appreciated from that perspective. Such commentaries on poetry, with their distinctly Chinese cultural features, distinguish themselves from Western scholars’ obsession with systematic construction of literary theories and strictly scientific modes of expression.
Second, the term shihua may also refer to a kind of age-old art of theatrical performance that intersperse singing with narrative, and verse with prose. Rhymed verse, which normally consists of seven characters to a line, is employed for singing. Prose, on the other hand, is used as in vernacular speech. The earliest extant work of this kind is Tales of Xuanzang’s Journey to the West compiled and published during the Song and Yuan periods.
This term refers to poetry that reflects social realities and major events of a historical period, thus possessing historical value. Some of the poems in The Book of Songs were about the realities of its time, which prompted Confucius（551-479 BC） to exclaim that “The Book of Songs enables one to understand society.” This means that he viewed The Book of Songs as using poetry to reflect history. Han dynasty scholars stressed the importance of poetry as a means of recording history. Subsequently, Chinese scholars of poetry believed that poetry should reflect reality through aesthetic means so as to provide aesthetic enjoyment, understanding as well as education. The poems of Tang poet Du Fu（712-770） are called “historical poetry” because they reflected what the country went through during the An Lushan-Shi Siming Rebellion and the author’s acute sense of sadness about the misery the country and its people suffered in times of national crisis.
DETAILED>>The term suggests that literary creation is affected by changes of the times. Author and literary scholar Liu Xie (465？-520) of the Southern Dynasties who used this term pointed out that literary creation is not an isolated phenomenon. Rather, it is affected by numerous historical factors, such as the prevailing social and political conditions, the personal preferences of rulers, as well as intellectual trends.
DETAILED>>Bhūtatathatā refers to the suchness of all existents. Buddhism rejects ontological claims but still needs to deal with reality. Therefore, Buddhist reality can be roughly described as a state of suchness rather than actuality. Bhūtatathatā lies at the core of Mahayana Buddhism, where it is defined as the emptiness of all beings. Since the intrinsic nature of the beings can never be understood, there is nothing behind the concept “suchness.” Thus, bhūtatathatā refers to the reality that only the pandits can observe.
DETAILED>>Posthumous titles were often conferred upon emperors, nobles, ministers, and other prominent officials with a high political and social status. The titles were intended to serve as a summation of the life of their holders. They mostly came in three forms: commendatory, derogatory, or sympathetic. They were an important part of institutional culture in Chinese traditional politics. The titles were designed to guide future generations and promote political and social stability.
DETAILED>>As employed in traditional Chinese art and literature, “thin” here means bony or not plump; it is used in collocation with “strong,” emphasizing a work’s strong structural force. Used in poetic composition, the term refers to a layout devoid of elaborate writing, flowery wording or excessively subtle description. Instead, amazingly new metrical patterns and bold, concise phrases and sentences are preferred to achieve a “thin and strong” style. When used in painting and calligraphy, it refers to thin but vigorous strokes executed to highlight a quality of unbending rigidity, unlike other more robust styles.
DETAILED>>This term refers to an artistic state wherein a calligraphic artist pursues a unity between body and soul through calligraphic creation, so that he may embrace the truths about the universe and life. It was influenced by Confucius (551-479 BC) who said: “[Cultivated people] should follow dao, adhere to virtues, embrace benevolence, and are well versed in various arts and skills.” It was influenced even more by Zhuangzi’s (369? -286 BC) aesthetic view, “If we can achieve perfection in a particular area of skill, we come close to the great Way itself.” The calligrapher aims higher than the mere art of calligraphy, aspiring to attain the great Way by transcending calligraphy as a mere skill or form of art. By the Tang Dynasty, because calligraphers put more emphasis on the different forms and skills of calligraphy, they started to use a new term “calligraphic technique.” Calligraphic technique represented an initial stage of calligraphy – a tangible, superficial and somewhat “lower” level. The calligraphic Way, on the other hand, was an advanced stage of calligraphic technique, paying attention to universal, abstract and therefore much “higher” aspects of calligraphy. This latter concept spread to Japan and took on the broader implications of self-cultivation and enlightenment later on. It, in turn, influenced the development of modern Chinese calligraphic art.
This term has two meanings. One refers to script in general inscribed on bamboo or wooden slips. The other refers to documentary proofs, particularly proof of property ownership inscribed on bamboo or wooden slips before paper was invented. Various activities and matters were recorded on the front side. A number of tooth-like marks were carved on one side. There are usually two copies of the document, each held by one of the two parties concerned for future re-verification. After the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, script inscribed on bamboo or wooden slips gradually fell into disuse, whereas documents of proof carved on the same medium continued to be used.
DETAILED>>This title was given to the renowned calligrapher Wang Xizhi, who lived from 303 to 361 (or possibly 307-365 or 321-379) of the Eastern Jin Period. The word "sage" here refers to a person of supreme attainment. People in ancient China tended to honor a person with an exceptional talent or skill as a "sage" in recognition of his outstanding accomplishments, prominent achievements, and profound influence. The term "Sage of Calligraphy" not only highlights Wang Xizhi’s superb mastery of calligraphic art but also commended his moral integrity. By carefully studying the features of calligraphy, and by imitating and practicing, Wang learned widely from the strong points of others. He was extraordinarily good at all four major forms of calligraphy – clerical script, cursive script, regular script, and running script. His calligraphy abandoned the special traits popular in the Han and Wei dynasties and formed a style of his own. His most noted and famous work, "Preface to the Collection of Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion" has been honored through the ages as the best running script ever written. Promoted by Xiao Yan (464-549), Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty, Li Shimin (599-649), Emperor Taizong of the Tang, and Zhao Guangyi (939-997), Emperor Taizong of the Song, there appeared three upsurges of emulating Wang’s calligraphy on a massive scale. Hence his prestige as the greatest calligrapher of all times.
DETAILED>>Classical academies were cultural and educational institutions that existed in China from the Tang and Song dynasties through the Ming and Qing dynasties. They were established either by the public or the government to serve the multiple purposes of education, research, and library service. Their origins were Buddhist monasteries and private libraries in the Tang Dynasty. Classical academies flourished in the Song Dynasty. In the early years of the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi (1130-1200), Zhang Shi (1133-1180), Lü Zuqian (1137-1181), Lu Jiuyuan (1139-1193)
, and some other scholars established academies that served as teaching and research centers of their respective schools of thought. The academies were independent of government schools and were located mostly in tranquil and scenic places. Under the supervision of learned Confucian scholars, the academies pursued academic freedom and innovation. Teachers taught by both precept and example, and laid stress on shaping their students’ moral character, rather than encouraging them to win degrees in the imperial civil examination system. By the end of the Southern Song Dynasty, however, the academies became increasingly government-oriented and were linked with the imperial civil examination system. The rise and decline of the academies was in harmony with the rise and decline of the School of Principle during the Song and Ming dynasties. In 1901 the Qing government ordered all the academies be changed to schools in modern sense. Having existed for more than 1,000 years, the academies greatly helped develop traditional Chinese culture and education, and convey Chinese culture abroad.
This concept consists of several pairs of opposites: sparsity and density, brevity and thoroughness, roughness and precision, flexibility and rigor, and estrangement and intimacy. In the artistic criticism of painting and calligraphy, the term is used to mainly describe the structural arrangement, general layout, as well as dark or light, thick or thin execution of strokes in these two art forms. In literary criticism, “sparsity” and “density” often occur together. “Sparsity” means carefree, rough or sketchy. It refers especially to thoughtlessness, carefreeness or looseness in the creation of prose and poetry. “Density” means meticulous, tight or compact. It often refers to rigor and thoroughness in theme development, logic, and wording in the creation of prose and poetry, and occasionally to the demerit of piling too many words up for no good reason. Ancient Chinese believed that sparsity and density represent a unity of opposites. A good work of art should balance density with sparsity in both structure and layout.
DETAILED>>This term refers to one of the twenty-four styles of poetry as propounded by SikongTu(837-908 ) of the Tang Dynasty and falls into a very important classic aesthetic category, An unrestrained and ingenuous spirit reflects a state of “carelessness” in poetic creation, whereby the poet allows his inner self to encounter external things without constraint, It does not choose any particular scenery and subject matter. It neither shows favor to any particular technique or means of expression, nor does it pay undue attention to wording. As a poetic style and a creative mindset, an unrestrained and ingenuous spirit does not mean arbitrariness, petulance or lack of method, Instead, it aims to shake off the influence of any preconceived idea or subconscious thought, yet respect prior cognitive and aesthetic experience. It represents not only a natural, quietly elegant, and unrestrained aesthetic style, but also a magnanimous mind and an elevated state of being.
DETAILED>>Tale telling was an artistic form of telling stories through talking and singing that originated in the pre-Qin times. By the late years of the Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin period, Buddhists and Daoists started to interpret religious scripts with vernacular language and vivid stories. In the Tang Dynasty, monks used talking and singing to interpret religious doctrines. On the basis of these early attempts, tale telling prospered in the Song Dynasty. It was no longer confined to temples, but became a form of popular entertainment on stages and at marketplaces. It included many subgenres such as histories based on works of authors of the Han to the Tang dynasties, skits with talking and singing, farces, stories of the Three Kingdoms and stories of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. In the Southern Song Dynasty, tale telling covered four subjects: stories told to the accompaniment of a wind instrument, war stories, histories of past dynasties as well as Buddhist allegories and tales about wise thoughts inspired by worshipping at shrines. Tale telling entertainers were good at talking, singing and telling jokes; and drums, gongs and other musical instruments were used to enhance the appeal. Poetic lines were read and an anecdote was told at the beginning of the show, a trick used by performers that drew cheers and applause from early comers and ensured that late arrivals would not miss the main show. Performances would often end with a recitation of other poetic lines. Tale telling was very popular among common folks throughout the Song Dynasty. The scripts thus developed became an important part of old-time vernacular Chinese fiction.
Knowledge from explanation is a type of knowledge and a way of acquiring it proposed by the Mohist School. In their opinion, knowledge is gained in three ways: by personal experience, by hearsay, and by explanation. To learn by explanation means making use of one’s own knowledge and information to reach conclusions and gain understanding.
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"Private name" is a category used in the Mohist School for naming specific things. The Mohists stressed the importance of properly naming things in different ways to reflect their real nature. They had three ways to name things: unrestricted, classified, and private. “Private name” refers to the proper name for something, such as a person’s name that is used to refer to a specific individual.
Literally, the term means “this culture.” It encompasses the cultural and ethical progress created by rites, music, education, codes, and systems as well as a social order which is hierarchical but harmonious. Later, this term came to refer to the literati and extended to mean being cultured and refined.
DETAILED>>The four initiators are buds of four virtues: ren (仁), yi (义), li (礼), and zhi (智), or roughly benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom, which Mencius （372？-289 BC） believed were all rooted in man’s mind. Commiseration is the initiator of benevolence. Shame is the initiator of righteousness. Deference is the initiator of propriety and a sense of right and wrong is the initiator of wisdom. The four initiators are naturally possessed by man. They are fundamental features defining a human being. Man should fully cultivate and develop his inherent kindness, then he can accomplish the four virtues, and consequently become a man of virtue or even a sage.
DETAILED>>Four Seas refer to the territory of China or the entire world. The ancient Chinese believed that China was a land surrounded by Four Seas – the East, West, North, and South seas. The term suggests what the ancient Chinese conceived to be the map of China and the world: Nine zhou (regions) were located at the center of tianxia (all under heaven). Tianxia consisted of nine zhou and its surrounding Four Seas. China was within the Four Seas, while foreign lands were outside the Four Seas. In ancient China, Four Seas referred to all under heaven in most cases, and did not denote a specific body of water. Therefore, the term was used sometimes to mean the seas surrounding the land, and sometimes to specify the land surrounded by the Four Seas.
DETAILED>>This term refers collectively to the four Confucian classics: The Analects, Mencius, The Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean. The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean originally were two sections of The Book of Rites, but before the Tang Dynasty they did not attract much attention. Following the revival of Confucianism which began in the Tang and Song dynasties, through the advocacy of Han Yu (768-824) and Li Ao (772-836) of the Tang Dynasty, Cheng Hao (1032-1085), Cheng Yi (1033-1107) and Zhu Xi (1130-1200) of the Song Dynasty, The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean were given new meaning. Their standing
This term means the four images, or features of the four images, which are engendered through the division of the two modes in the process of the formation of the eight trigrams. As explained in The Book of Changes, “Changes involve taiji (太极 the supreme ultimate), which produces two modes. The two modes generate the four images, and the four images generate the eight trigrams.” The four images are distinct from one another while also mutually related. There was no agreement among ancient scholars with regard to what the four images represent. From the point of view of the coming into being of all things, the four images might stand for the four seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter; or four basic elements: metal, wood, water, and fire. Alternatively, as a term in divination, the four images could refer to the four stalks in each group when the divination stalks are divided in a fortune-telling exercise, or to four line images for divination: greater yin, greater yang, lesser yin, and lesser yang.
DETAILED>>Essays of extolment and commendation were written to pay tribute to laudable persons, things, merits and virtues, thus promoting their positive influence. The purpose of both an extolment and a commendation is to exalt good persons and things. Such essays are short, neatly patterned and rhymed. Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties valued the intellectual and educational value of extolment and commendation essays. He found that the objects of extolment had extended from gods, emperors and kings to ordinary people and the scope of extolment was no longer limited to state affairs; it had been extended to cover all beautiful things. To him, an essay of commendation also functions as an evaluation and a positive evaluation enhances the significance of commendation. In Chinese literature, writings of extolment or commendation are not only essays in their own right; they are sometimes attached to various literary works or even news reports. These works, through extolment and positive evaluation, promote the traditional Chinese thought and culture.
DETAILED>>The original meaning of su (素) is undyed natural colored silk. Pu (朴) refers to unprocessed wood. The extended meaning of the term is humans or anything that is in a basic, natural state or condition. The opposite is anything that is artificially altered or interfered with. Scholars of the Daoist school held that a ruler should protect the natural state of his subjects through non-action and avoid interfering too much with their lives. However, scholars of other schools maintained that the natural state of both humans and objects must be changed and molded in order to be of use.
DETAILED>>Taiji (the supreme ultimate) has three different meanings. First, it refers to the origin of the world. The ancient Chinese saw it either as qi (vital force) or yuanqi (primordial vital force) that permeates the chaotic world, or as a universal principle, i.e. dao or li (理), or as wu (无). Second, it is used as a term of divination, referring to the initial state before divinatory numbers, the odd number one (written as —) and the even number two (written as – –), are applied or before the yarrow stems are divided. Divination is conducted on the basis of taiji. Third, it stands for the highest point or boundary of space.
DETAILED>>Taixu (太虚) refers to a state of void in both space and things. Zhang Zai（1020-1077）, a thinker in the Song Dynasty, elaborated on the meaning of taixu, or great void. He believed that all things in heaven and on earth were made up of qi (气), and that taixu was its natural state, which was formless and motionless. When taixu coalesced, it turned into qi；when qi dissipated, it became taixu. Though taixu could not be felt by humans, it was not absolute emptiness and nothingness. Taixu gave life to all things in heaven and on earth by means of qi.
DETAILED>>The imperial academy was the highest educational institution and educational administrative department in feudal China. The term first appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty, but the first imperial academy was not officially established until 124 BC during the reign of Emperor Wu （156-87 BC） of the Han Dynasty. Teachers of the imperial academy were called “grand academicians” (literarily “scholars of broad learning”). They were well versed in Confucian classics, had rich teaching experience, and possessed both moral integrity and professional competence. Their students were called “students of the imperial academy” or “students of the grand academicians.” At its peak the imperial academy had 10,000 students.
The central governments of all subsequent dynasties, including the Ming and Qing, had an imperial academy or a similar institution of education, usually located in the capital. It had different names and systems in different dynasties. The imperial academy, the top institution of learning run by the central government, along with local institutions of education and private schools, formed a complete education system in ancient China. They were significant in disseminating the Confucian classics and ancient China’s mainstream values with Confucianism as its main school of thought.
DETAILED>>This is an important term about literary style that stresses the unity and integration of the styles of writings with the temperaments of their authors. The term originated by Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties in his The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. One chapter of the book discusses how the styles of writings are related to the temperaments of the writers, and argues that the writings truly reflect the temperaments of their authors. This has encouraged later generations to analyze different styles of literary works based on the authors’ temperaments and became a basic line of thought on ancient Chinese literary style.
DETAILED>>Ti (体) and yong (用) can be understood in three different ways: 1) a physical thing and its functions or roles; 2) the ontological existence of a thing and its expression and application; and 3) the fundamental code of conduct, and its observance. In any ti–yong relationship, ti provides the basis on which yong depends.
DETAILED>>The way of heaven refers to the basic rule governing the existence and changes of all things between heaven and earth （as opposed to the “way of man”）. Ancient Chinese interpreted the “way of heaven” in different ways. First, some believed that “the way of heaven,” especially the celestial phenomena relating to the movements of the sun, the moon, and the stars, foretell or dictate the success or failure of human affairs. In ancient times, designated officials predicted human affairs through observing celestial phenomena. Second, some believed that “the way of heaven” was the source or the basis of man’s moral conduct and of orderly human relations. One should comply with “the way of heaven,” in both words and deeds, so should human relations； and people should recognize and develop the moral nature bestowed upon by heaven so as to gain access to “the way of heaven.” Third, still others thought that there were no particular correlations between “the way of heaven” on the one hand, and moral conduct in the human world, human relations, as well as misfortune and fortune in human affairs on the other.
DETAILED>>This term refers to sounds produced by all things in nature between heaven and earth. Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) divided sounds into three categories: “human sounds,” “terrestrial sounds,” and “celestial sounds.” According to him, “human sounds” refer to sounds made by a vertical bamboo flute when a person blows air into its top end. “Terrestrial sounds” refer to sounds produced by the earth’s apertures when wind blows through them. “Celestial sounds” are not totally different from the above two. They refer to multifarious sounds made naturally by all things in the universe, which are not sounds created by external factors. By defining the “sounds of nature” this way, Zhuangzi meant to minimize the influence of the subjective mind so as to discover and respect the natural state of all things. People of later generations generally use this term to describe a literary work such as a poem or an essay that is written in a smooth way and has the appeal of natural charm. They also use the term “music of Nature” to refer to naturally produced sounds that are pleasant to the ear.
DETAILED>>The term means the universal law observed by all things in heaven and on earth as well as by human society. Confucian scholars in the Song and Ming dynasties held that the essence of heaven was natural law, and they regarded natural law as the realm of ultimate significance. Natural law is the essence or the source of things, deciding the inherent nature of humans and things. It is the law of nature and the foundation of moral conduct in the human society. Natural law transcends visible, concrete things, but it also exists in each concrete thing. In terms of human nature, natural law expresses itself in the innate good nature one is bestowed upon by heaven, as opposed to “human desire.”
DETAILED>>The term means order and bestowment from Heaven. “Mandate of heaven” mainly contains three different meanings: The first is the order of heaven over human affairs. Such order first of all focuses on a change of the supreme ruler’s authority: Heaven empowers the virtuous to attack and replace a ruler who has lost his virtue, and thus enjoy the highest and unsurpassed power and benefits. Secondly, mandate of heaven means fate, which is irresistible and imposes limit on human power. Thirdly, the term indicates the natural disposition bestowed by heaven upon human being. According to The Doctrine of the Mean, “Mandate of heaven endows one with his nature.” Song-dynasty Confucian scholars developed this idea, proposing that human nature was the “nature of mandate of heaven,” that is, the inherent pure and good nature one receives from heaven.
DETAILED>>This concept is said to have been coined by Xunzi (313?-238 BC). Innate emotions refer to the innate desires and emotions that humans possess, including love, hate, delight, anger, sadness, and joy. Xunzi believed that people naturally develop these desires and emotions while interacting with external objects, and they are not created by humans after birth. People should exercise necessary control and regulation of these desires and emotions, on the one hand, to allow for appropriate expression, and on the other hand, to avoid excessive indulgence.
DETAILED>>This term, which comes fromThe Book of Changes,refers to the laws governing the movements of constellations and the change of weather. The termtianwen(天文)means the constant laws that govern the movements of celestial bodies, the rotation of the four seasons, the succession of day and night, and the change of weather. The ancient Chinese believed that both human relationships and all things in the universe are governed by the same laws, and so by observing and following the laws of constellations and seasons, people can establish social order.
This term referred mainly to all the land under the name of the Son of Heaven and the right to rule on such land. The ancient Chinese held that the rule of senior officials was over their enfeoffed land, and that of dukes and princes was over feudal states. The rule of the Son of Heaven was over all the land. Literally, tianxia (天下) means “all under heaven.” It actually refers to all the territory embracing the enfeoffed land and feudal states under the rule or in the name of the Son of Heaven, as well as all the subjects and the right to rule. The term has later evolved to refer to the whole nation or the whole world.
DETAILED>>Tianxiang (天象) signifies the various phenomena appearing in the sky, with xiang (象) denoting a visible event of an incorporeal objective presence. The ancient Chinese believed that both celestial bodies, such as the sun, moon, and stars, and meteorological symbols, such as wind, rain, thunder, and lightning, are not corporeal. Therefore, the phenomena manifested by their movement or occurrence are called tianxiang, the heavenly phenomena. Through observation and interpretation of the heavenly phenomena, the ancients attempted to explain the course and norms underlying the operation of nature and, by extension, society.
DETAILED>>This term means heaven’s work, or a responsibility assigned by heaven. “Heaven’s work” can have different meanings. First, it can mean work done by heaven. For example, Xunzi (313?-238 BC) felt that heaven could give rise to all things. This is an inherent function of heaven; it is neither something humans are capable of, nor is it something they should seek to do. Second, it can mean a responsibility assigned by heaven to humans. Because the authority of heaven is supreme, a responsibility which it assigns is unshirkable.
DETAILED>>The term comes from the book Mozi. Mozi (468?-376 BC) felt that heaven was the highest authority, and that heaven’s will was for people to love one another regardless of rank, namely “universal love.” Heaven would reward those who acted in accordance with its will, and punish those who contravened it. Given the supreme and irresistible authority of heaven, what it affirmed or rejected constituted the basic guidelines for people’s words and deeds and for interpersonal relations.
DETAILED>>The Son of Heaven refers to the emperor or monarch, the supreme ruler of an empire or dynasty. People in ancient times believed that a monarch ruled the world by Heaven’s decree and with its mandate, hence he was called the Son of Heaven. This term asserted that a ruler’s authority was legitimate and sacred, as it was bestowed by Heaven, but to some extent, it also restricted the exercise of this power. This has some similarity to the Western concept of the divine right of kings by the grace of God, but there are fundamental differences. Tian (天), the Chinese word for Heaven, is not the same as the Western term “God.” Rather, the Chinese term also implies the idea of interaction between Heaven and man, which means that the decree of Heaven also embodies popular will and popular support.
DETAILED>>This term originally referred to siblings in the same family. On the basis of the belief that all living creatures are created by heaven and earth, Zhang Zai (1020–1077) of the Northern Song Dynasty advanced the view that all people were brothers and sisters and all living things companions. The meaning of the term was thus extended from blood ties to include people of the same nation or state, especially those with a common language and culture. Sometimes the term goes beyond the nation to refer to all of humanity. By tracing common ancestry, language and culture, it rouses and strengthens people’s sense of identity and recognition of their own nation and state. Equality and universal love it embodies are a source of inspiration for humanity.
Tong (同commonality) and yi (异difference) are opposing concepts that underpin a fundamental relationship among things. When distinct boundaries separate one thing from another, it implies that these two entities share some similarities while also showing differences in various aspects. The assessment of commonality and difference among things is crucial for their recognition and arrangement. In ancient times, many believed that things should be arranged in a rational manner according to an overall order, which was established on the basis of clear definition and accurate comprehension of the commonality and difference among things. Some others advocated acknowledging the relativity of the concepts of commonality and difference and thus breaking away from the constraints of such a relationship in the cognitive dimensions.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a person’s innate nature, that is, the pure and true mind of a child not influenced by subsequent enculturation. “Childlike heart” is a concept of literary creation advanced by the late Ming thinker Li Zhi (1527-1602) to counter what he considered the conceited writing style of the Neo-Confucian School of Principle and the dogmatic imitation of the ancients by the Classicist School of Literary Creation. Li Zhi’s “childlike heart” claims that all good writing comes from an untarnished heart. Only by writing with a childlike heart, natural and innate, can one break away from the shackles imposed by the Confucian principle that “emotions coming from the heart should be constrained by rites,” thus creating first-rate work by any standard. The proposition of “childlike heart” relates both to thoughts on individual emancipation in the late Ming Dynasty, and the influence of Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind. In literary creation, this “childlike heart” is expressed as a love for natural and pure beauty, reflecting people’s desire to shatter the restraints imposed by rites, as well as their will to pursue freedom and liberty. As such, it helped shape literary creation in the late Ming Dynasty, and has a significant impact on the formation of modern literary trends.
First proposed in the book Xunzi, this term refers to fundamental principles which apply to different things. It means that by differentiating things according to their categories and by understanding these categories, a sage could acquire universal principles which apply to all things. By following universal principles, one can ensure that different categories of things can all find their proper places within a unified order. At the same time, new things can also be integrated into the existing order.
Mencius (372?-289 BC) advocated that those in power should govern with love and benevolence. He believed that humans by nature have love for their fellows, but that this needs to be widely inclusive in order to constitute a true rule with benevolence. Love and benevolence begin with close family and relatives but then should spread to embrace all the people under his rule. This is the way to achieve rule with benevolence.
DETAILED>>This term encapsulates the notion of the cyclical disappearance and reappearance of things or states. Primarily, “disappearance and reappearance” signifies the cycle of departure and return pertaining to a journey. Ancient Chinese scholars expanded upon this concept, applying it abstractly to represent the dual mechanisms of transformation in things or states of things. Here, wang (往) symbolizes disappearance and fu (复) stands for reappearance. The processes of disappearance and reappearance in things or states of things can be contradictory or alternate cyclically. Fully understanding the process of “disappearance and reappearance” and adapting to these transformations is vital to success.
DETAILED>>Think in terms of oneself. This is the fundamental concept of Yang Zhu of the Warring States Period. He felt that to oneself, the most important things were one’s body and one’s life. Hence the main consideration in “for one’s own sake”is how to protect one’s body and life. In Yang Zhu’s opinion, people should observe the principle of acting “for one’s own sake” in their words and deeds, and prioritize thinking about themselves. Not even the slightest harm to one’s own body or life should result from seeking personal wealth and status, or from seeking benefits for others or for the collective.
DETAILED>>The term generally refers to different types of writings. Its meanings have evolved over time. During the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, it generally referred to writing techniques, writing styles, and various types of articles. During the Wei, Jin, and the Southern and Northern dynasties, literary scholars began to identify different features in different types of writings. They distinguished, for the first time, literary writings from those interpreting classical works, and identified pure literature as literary writings and practical writings as technical writings. They subsequently distinguished, on the basis of form, literary works such as poems, fu (赋 descriptive prose interspersed with verse), song (颂 essays of extolment), and zan (赞 essay of commendation) from essays such as memorials, documents, and policy proposals submitted to the emperor by officials. They concluded that all writings with rhyme were literary writings and those without were technical writings. Xiao Yi（508-554）, Emperor Yuan of Liang, argued further that literary writings should not only have rhyme, but also express the author’s inner feelings and use elaborate rhetoric, while technical writings required only general writing skills. Today, this term mainly refers to writing techniques and language styles.
DETAILED>>Wenhua (文化) means to cultivate the populace through rituals, music, laws and so on. The term encapsulates the concept of teaching people essential ideals and principles of human culture while guiding them to embrace goodness so as to build a social order that is both differentiated and harmonious. In the traditional Chinese context, wenhua is the main method of governing the state advocated by Confucianism, as opposed to wugong (武功 the use of force or even violence to achieve social governance). In modern times, wenhua is used as the Chinese equivalent of the word “culture,” which usually refers to all human cultural activities and achievements; in archaeology, it refers to the complex of relics and monuments of a given historical period; in everyday language, it also refers to the ability to use language and general knowledge.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a thriving, prosperous, and perceptibly refined society in which people behave in a cultured fashion. Wen (文) refers to the arts and humanities, including social norms, music education, moral cultivation, and a social order that is hierarchical yet harmonious. Ming (明) means bright, prosperous, and highly civilized. The Chinese nation has always preferred wen to wu (武 force). This is the loftiest ideal pursued by the Chinese nation since ancient times. It was also the criterion by which to judge whether the governance of a nation was well conducted.
DETAILED>>Wenqi (文气) is the personality an author demonstrates in his works, and is a fusion of his innate temperament and the vitality seen in his works. Originally, qi (气) referred to the basic element in the initial birth and formation of all things, as well as heaven and earth. In literary criticism, it refers to an author’s distinctive individuality and its manifestation in his writings. Humans are believed to develop different characters and traits endowed by the qi of heaven and earth. Reflected in literary creation, such different characters and traits naturally find expression in distinctive styles and varying degrees of vigor as well as rhythm and cadence.
DETAILED>>Originally, the term meant to command a good knowledge of documents from pervious dynasties. Wen (文) referred to documents, and xue (学) referred to the study of these documents. Later, the term referred to articles and documents in general as well as the knowledge about those documentations. The term had three main meanings. Firstly, from the pre-Qin period to the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, it meant knowledge of ancient literature, especially that of humanities including poetry, history, rites and music, as well as works of laws and regulations. Starting from the Wei and Jin dynasties, the term basically became equivalent to today’s concept of literature, but it also referred to academic writings on humanities. With the introduction of the Western concept of literature in recent history, the term gradually evolved to mean a pursuit that uses language to create aesthetic images. However, a few scholars, such as Zhang Taiyan（1869—1936）, stuck to its traditional definition. The original meaning of the term determined the mainstream view on literature in contemporary China, which focuses on examining a literary phenomenon in the broader cultural context and emphasizing the intrinsic relationship between the aesthetic values of literature and liberal arts. This is somewhat different from the Western notion of literature which highlights the independent nature of literary appreciation. Secondly, the term refers broadly to various kinds of articles and documents in ancient times. Thirdly, it refers to scholars who promote learning through writing and teaching, as well as officials in charge of culture and education.
DETAILED>>The term refers to all kinds of writings, including what we call essays and books today. In the Pre-Qin period, this term was subsumed under literature. During the Han Dynasty, the term referred to writings other than wenxue (文学 documents of previous dynasties) to specifically mean essays, articles, history books, and treatises. In the Six Dynasties, the term, together with wenxue, began to assume the meaning of what later generations meant by literature, that is, writings for aesthetic appreciation which encompass every type of literary works. Zhang (章) also implies a movement of music played to its finish, or a single piece of music. Therefore, the term focuses on both meaning and structure as well as writing skills and techniques. Both Chinese characters in the term have the meaning of interwoven patterns and colors. Together, they signify a beautiful form, giving the term an aesthetic connotation. The earlier concept of the term is related to but different from that of wenxue, with the former focusing more on elegant diction and style, indicating increasing attention to the aesthetic value of literary works.
DETAILED>>People and things both exist in form and content , with content representing their essence and form representing their appearance . Confucian scholars often used “form and content” to describe the display and the substance of rites. The external “form” must be based on the internal “content” because form pursued in isolation from content will be ostentatious. At the same time, form is indispensable for presenting internal content. Form must suit and correspond to content.
Knowledge from hearsay is a type of knowledge and a way of acquiring it proposed by the Mohist School. In their opinion, knowledge is gained in three ways: by personal experience, by hearsay, and by explanation. To learn by hearsay means being told or taught by others, and is an indirect way of gaining knowledge.
Artists often admire natural scenery beholding landscape paintings rather than traveling to actual spots. When the Southern Dynasty painter Zong Bing (375-443), due to illness in old age, could no longer tour great mountains and rivers, he painted the landscapes he had once seen and then hung the works on the wall, thus fulfilling his dream of seeing those beautiful sights again. This term illustrates the tradition of loving mountains and rivers among ancient literati, affirms the significance of art to life, and promotes the art of painting.
DETAILED>>This term means lack of permanence. Everything in the world comes into being through a combination of causes and conditions. It perishes without them. There is no permanent, unchanging essence which one may see as the basis of its identity. Buddhism distinguishes two levels of impermanence. First, impermanence of successive appearance: A living individual lacks any essence, such as that of a soul, which does not change in a succession of birth and death. Continuity and similarity are mere appearance. Second, impermanence of every thought-instance: It emphasizes that everything which has arisen from the combination of causes and conditions changes, arises and is extinguished in the instant of a thought.
DETAILED>>The concept first appears in Zhuangzi. According to Zhuangzi (369?–286 BC), people and things cannot exist independently of their context, and thus are always limited and constrained by various external conditions, that is, they depend on something. But since the human mind is able to transcend the reality of its context and is not bound by external things, it can thus achieve a free and unhindered state. This is the state of the mind having nothing to depend on.
DETAILED>>Wuqiong (无穷), literally “limitlessness,”has various meanings: (1) spatial boundlessness; (2) temporal endlessness; and (3) infinity in number, size, and so forth. As they explored limitlessness, the ancients recognized the relativity of the concept in terms of time, space, and other particular things. A switch in perspective may transform limitlessness into limitedness, and vice versa.
DETAILED>>Wuwei (non-action) refers to a state of action. Daoism contrasts “action” to “non-action.” “Action” generally means that the rulers impose their will on others or the world without showing any respect for or following the intrinsic nature of things. “Non-action” is the opposite of “action,” and has three main points: 1) through self-control containing the desire to interfere; 2) following the nature of all things and the people; and 3) bringing into play the initiative of all things and people. “Non-action” does not mean not doing anything, but is a wiser way of doing things. Non-action leads to the result of getting everything done.
DETAILED>>This notion means that there is no really existing self. Buddhism holds that a so-called subject in the reincarnation does not exist at all. That is why it is called “egolessness.” This idea was originally directed against the thinking of the then-popular Brahmanism. This religion assumes that in the unpredictable and complex subjective experience there is a permanent and unchanging self. Whereas Buddhism holds that the so-called “I” is just an aggregate of many psychological and physical phenomena. The idea was later extended to areas beyond the subject in life, that is, people and other existence are all egoless. Namely nothing has an enduring and constant core essence or a real self.
DETAILED>>As opposed to youxing (有形 corporeal), wuxing (无形) literally means “incorporeal” or “formless.” The incorporeal cannot be described using such formal measurements as size, length, and weight, thereby they are lacking the formal confines that separate one thing from another. There are several types of incorporeal things. Qi, as one example, cannot be seen but can be felt. The way (dao), as another, can neither be seen nor be felt and therefore cannot be designated by a name. In ancient times, it was generally recognized that the incorporeal serve as the nature of or origin for the generation and changing of the corporeal.
DETAILED>>Yu (欲) means desire people have when they are attracted by external objects. Such desire, as the condition necessary for existence, should be suitably met. However, excessive desire is detrimental to one’s life and will lead to a decline in public moral and result in social chaos. So both Confucianism and Daoism are against excessive desire. In addition, in Daoist thinking, “having no excessive desire” refers to Dao’s attitude towards everything and how those in power should handle their relations with the common people. Daoism believes that those in power should suppress their desire and refrain from arousing people’s desire.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the five Confucian classics: The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. In the pre-Qin period, the term “Six Classics” was used, referring to The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. The Book of Music, did not exist in written form, hence people often used the term “Five Classics” during the Han Dynasty. After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (156-87 BC) established the title of “Academician of the Five Classics,” study of these works became the foundation of Chinese learning, culture, and thought. In terms of content, the Five Classics each has its own focus; for instance, The Book of Songs deals with aspirations, and The Book of History chronicles events. Different in focus but complementing each other, they form an integral collection of classics. Throughout history, Confucian scholars added significant meaning to these classics with their interpretations of the original texts. The Five Classics comprise traditional Chinese culture’s fundamental understanding of world order and values, epitomizing the concept of dao.
Five-character rhythmic poetry is one of the most important forms of ancient Chinese rhyming poetry. The basic form is eight lines with four pairs of rhymes and each line has five characters. Long rhyming poems with six, eight or even more rhymes are also part of five-character rhythmic poetry. Five-character rhythmic poetry must meet both metrical rules and rhetorical requirements.The metrical rules refer to level and oblique tones and the rhyme scheme. In five-character rhythmic poetry, there are four basic types of lines, alternating between level and oblique tones; level and oblique tones must match between different pairs of lines and within the same pair of lines; and rhymes are in even numbered lines, usually with the level tone. The rhetoric is embodied in the antithesis and the arrangement of introduction, elucidation, transition and summing up. The eight lines are divided into the first, second, third, and fourth pairs, and the second and third pairs in the middle are antithetical. Five-character rhythmic poetry is the most sophisticated form of Chinese five-character poetry, combining the beauty of temperament and rhetoric. The overall rhythm is smooth, and impromptu inspirations and material objects are integrated, producing the artistic aesthetic effect of tranquility and stateliness. The Tang Dynasty attained the greatest achievement in five-character rhythmic poetry, with a large number of famous poets and poems. In addition, from the Tang Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, five-character rhythmic poetry with six or eight rhymes, known as shitie poetry (试帖诗), was always a compulsory item in the imperial examination. This fully illustrates the importance of this type of poetry in classical Chinese culture.
DETAILED>>Also known as the five human relationships, these refer to the relationships between father and son, between monarch and minister, between husband and wife, between siblings, and between friends. Ancient Chinese people believed that these were the most basic relationships between people. Each relationship had to follow the corresponding norms, namely, between father and son, there should be affection; between sovereign and minister, righteousness; between husband and wife, attention to their separate roles; between siblings, a proper order; and between friends, honor and trust. It was held that balancing these five relationships was the basis for governing the country and society, and that they showed Chinese culture as people-orientated, with an emphasis on good order.
DETAILED>>There are three meanings to the term. (1) The five fundamental things or elements that make up all things. The Book of History was the first to define the five elements: metal, wood, water, fire, and earth. Each of these has its own properties and they interact in a generative or destructive relationship. (2) On a more abstract level, the term refers to the basic framework to understand the world. All things can be included in the realm of wuxing (五行) and their properties are explained or understood accordingly. (3) It refers to five kinds of moral behavior. Xunzi (313?-238 BC) once criticized Zisi (483-402 BC) and Mencius (372?-289 BC) for “creating wuxing on the basis of old theories.” Ancient bamboo slips unearthed from a grave at Guodian dating back to the State of Chu as well as inscribed silk texts from the Mawangdui Tomb of the Western Han Dynasty, all describe this wuxing as benevolence, righteousness, li (礼), wisdom, and the wisdom and character of a sage.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the five musical notes that rise in pitch, from gong (宫),shang (商),jue (角),zhi (徵),to yu (羽), which correspond roughly to the notes of 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 in today's numbered musical notation. When a zhi minus is placed before zhi and a gong plus after yu, this pentatonic scale becomes heptatonic. Such division of the musical notes gives rise to a variety of tunes. Although Chinese classical music based on a five-note scale does not vary that much, it retains the beauty of a simple, quiet, and lyrical style. As ancient refined music and folksongs were mostly based on a five-note scale, this term often referred to music in general.
DETAILED>>This is a form of the existence of things when the boundary between things is broken and one thing transforms into another. The term “transformation of things” comes from Zhuangzi, in which the author Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) illustrated the concept in the fable Zhuangzi Dreamed of Becoming a Butterfly. He believed that the boundary and difference between oneself and others, between in a dream and being awake, and between all things can be broken. Consequently, one may achieve the transformation between one thing and another. However, if one holds onto the difference between oneself and the others, one cannot achieve the transformation of things, as if in a dream. If one is bent on transforming things, one may still fall into a dream.
This term refers broadly to the appearances and patterns of everything in nature. It was originally used to describe the colors of animal furs; later it became associated with the colors of all physical objects, such as the splendor of scenery and landscape. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties discussed at some length the relationship between natural features and literary creation in his book The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. In his view, "Literary writing is created only when the writer's innermost emotion is stirred up by external things." That is, as objects of aesthetic appreciation, natural features can inspire one to turn his emotions into words.
This term means two types of imperial decrees in ancient times. Xi (檄) was an official condemnation of the enemy and an official rallying call to fight, whereas yi (移) was an admonition released to the public to advise people against improper speech and behavior. As Liu Xie (465?-520) remarked in his literary critique The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, an imperial decree of condemnation was written to list atrocities committed by the enemy, boost soldiers' morale, win popular support and demoralize enemy troops. Therefore, it was compelling and forceful, and well-articulated, supported by ample reasoning and proofs. Where necessary, overstatement, exaggeration or even deceitful wording can be employed in such a decree. An admonition, on the other hand, was written to expose problems or vices inside the empire, alert the public to their harmful effects and demand their timely rectification. Because an admonition was issued to one's own subjects, it should be more compassionate and lenient in tone. An admonition should be factual, without pomposity or fanfare. It should get right to the heart of a problem rather than beating about the bush or even concealing the truth. A condemnation and an admonition share one thing in common: they were stern in denouncing evildoing and malpractices.
DETAILED>>This term means that wording should be refined to highlight the essential message. Terseness is a mark of neat and thematically explicit writing. The idea originates from the process of cleansing metal ores for the removal of impurities, or from that of smelting metals. Figuratively, it refers to an authorial effort to capture the core message by cutting out redundant wording. As a way of writing, this involves the refinement of both content and wording; it sets a more clear-cut requirement on writers than the idea of “fusion for greater brevity,” which was proposed by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties. As a literary style, it calls for full agreement between wording, aspiration, and philosophical thought, as well as for conciseness.
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This term refers to the Southern Opera. The latter is a type of local opera which had developed from traditional folk songs and dances and was popular in China’s southeastern coastal areas from the late Northern Song Dynasty to the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. It ran parallel to zaju that was popular in the north at the same historical period. It later developed into the legendary drama in the Ming and Qing dynasties. As the earliest, mature operatic form, it best represents traditional Chinese opera. Hence Xiwen (戏文) is widely used to refer to script of traditional Chinese operas.
DETAILED>>A person of integrity is one with the ideal character championed by the ancient Chinese. A person of integrity practices and observes all the ethical rules and standards in life, and his behavior is revered as the model for such a way of life. However, different schools of thought have different understanding as to what qualities a person of integrity should have. To Confucian scholars, a person of integrity practices moral virtues such as benevolence and righteousness and is considered competent for being an official. Mohists, however, believe a person of integrity should see that those under his governance practice universal love as their fundamental moral guidance. Still others, such as Daoist scholars, argue that exalting a person of integrity would lead to unnecessary controversy and would thus be detrimental to governance.
DETAILED>>Literally, this term means to reverse the state of one being hung upside down. It originated from Zhuangzi. The author Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) found that people tend to look at other people or things from their own positions, and they thus develop biased views about others and the world. Their mind is consequently in a state of tension. To Zhuangzi, this state of mind of clinging to one’s prejudice is like one being bound and hung upside down. So, breaking free from subjective bias is like freeing one from this state of tension.
DETAILED>>A hypocrite is one who uses deceptive ways to seek a good local reputation. Hypocrites appear to behave in accordance with moral principles so as to win popular praise, while in reality compromising principles and personal integrity, currying favor, and colluding with dishonorable people. Hypocrites appear to be virtuous superior persons, but in reality are not. Their conduct often causes confusion in moral judgment, posing a tremendous threat to social morality.
DETAILED>>This concept refers specifically to the way of teaching and the use of Buddha statues and various symbols and virtual images to disseminate Buddhist beliefs. As such, image-based teaching is sometimes used to refer to Buddhism. There is a long history of image-based teaching in ancient China. The ancient Chinese believed that the way of governing all things under heaven and the mysteries of the human heart, namely,knowledge, reason, thought, emotion, and will, are all represented and conveyed through the images of all things under heaven and the images envisaged by humans. In The Book of Changes, trigrams are used to describe all things under heaven and their changes and interconnections. Therefore, images in The Book of Changes are the origin of all other images in traditional Chinese culture, and they are also the general name of all cultural symbols in China. Exploring the mystery of images and giving full play to them became the basic approach of Confucianism to understanding the way of all things under heaven and to educating people. After the Wei and Jin dynasties, the images in The Book of Changes and those used in Buddhist teaching merged, giving rise to the concept of image-based instruction, which profoundly influenced ancient Chinese literary criticism and writing. The Chinese literati attached great importance to using images, symbols and literary images to represent certain cultural allegorical and edifying functions. However, with the development of language and cultural symbols, the images in The Book of Changes phased out of people’s daily lives, and images began to refer to shapes, symbols and literary images. Image-based teaching has become an issue concerning aesthetics and literary theory. Qing Dynasty scholar Zhang Xuecheng(1738-1801) made a systematic exploration on this concept in his work General Principles of History.
DETAILED>>This refers to the emblems and numbers used in divination. Emblems are cracks in baked tortoise shells, and numbers are inferred from stalks used in divination. Emblems and numbers are the basis of foretelling the future. In The Book of Changes, emblems are divination symbols and the things they represent, and numbers refer to the odd and even numbers of yin and yang and the numbers secured from the divination stalks. Some interpreters of The Book of Changes advocate using emblems and numbers to deduce the changes in all things in the universe.
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Waxing and waning are two ways in which things change. These two ways are opposites, but they also alternate with each other. When something has grown to a certain point, it will begin to decline, and having declined to a certain degree it will begin to grow again. All things between heaven and earth are in a process of waxing and waning in compliance with their internal laws. People need to grasp this law and act accordingly as things wax and wane.
Xiaogu (小故) refers to an insufficient cause or condition. The Mohists categorized the causes of things being so into dagu (大故major cause) and xiaogu (minor cause). It is uncertain whether xiaogu leads to the corresponding consequence, but it is certain that its absence leads not to the consequence. In simpler terms, xiaogu is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the occurrence of events.
DETAILED>>This term refers to norms of conduct observed in daily life. Relative to major principles, minor principles concern detailed regulations and standards of conduct and are about routine duties of people of different social status, and how exactly they should be performed. “Minor principles” are the rules that people must observe in their daily life. These principles are not of fundamental significance themselves, but their negligence of them will lead to unseemly behavior. Nevertheless, as long as major principles are always observed, there is no need to get caught up in the minor ones.
Since ancient times, the term xiaokang (小康) has been understood to mean a state of peace and moderate prosperity. As an important political concept of Confucianism, it has been used to refer to what was seen as the commendable political climate achieved through the efforts of outstanding rulers such as Yu the Great of the Xia Dynasty, King Tang of the Shang Dynasty, kings Wen, Wu (?-1043 BC), and Cheng (?-1021 BC) of the Zhou, and the Duke of Zhou. This social climate was characterized by national stability, good order, high public awareness of etiquette and law, and a contented people. Such a society was held up as an ideal society, second only to that of Great Harmony, or datong (大同). Today, the Chinese people are being called upon to build a society of modest prosperity with balanced economic, political, cultural, social, and ecological advancement. As the goal of Chinese-style modernization, this xiaokang society is a new concept with deep historical and cultural roots.
DETAILED>>The term refers to short lyrics and songs. The short lyrics originated from the drinking songs composed impromptu during the drinkers’ wager games at banquets in the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties. After the form of the music and the number of words of the lyrics were fixed, it became one of the genres to fill in the lyrics to set tunes. The lyrics were divided into ling (令), yin (引), jin (近), and man (慢), initially based on the rhythms of the music. Ling had the fewest rhythms. Later, the lyrics became separated from the music and could no longer be sung, so some scholars distinguished lyrics according to the number of words, calling short lyrics of about sixty words or less xiaoling lyrics. Sanqu (散曲), or lyric songs, of the Yuan Dynasty consist of xiaoling songs and cycles of songs. As songs, xiaoling are single songs, also called Ye’er (叶儿), which are equivalent to the basic unit of sanqu. Their tunes are mainly folk music from the north of the country during the Yuan Dynasty. However, some of the tunes may also derive from the ci tunes. As ci lyrics, xiaoling should be filled in strict accordance with the lyrical rules, and should be rhymed using either level or oblique tones.Xiaoling songs may insert words outside the melodic form, and the level tone, falling-rising tone, and falling tone can all be rhymed, which make the form more flexible. Gradually integrated with the aesthetic style of poetry, xiaoling lyrics displayed the style of the literati and scholars, paying attention to subtlety and implication. The content of xiaoling songs is more popular among the general public, and the language is mostly straightforward and lively. Be it a lyric or a song, xiaoling masterpieces are concise yet meaningful and rich in rhythm.
DETAILED>>The term was originally used to indicate a person’s social status, usually referring to the rulers’ subjects or those low in social ranking. Later generations also used the term to indicate one’s moral standard in a disapproving way. Those of base character were called petty men as opposed to men of virtue. A petty man only pursues his personal interests or profits, even by violating morality and righteousness; and such people have no understanding of or regard for dao.
DETAILED>>Fiction is a literary genre primarily concerned with depicting characters to tell a complete story about social life within a setting. Fiction has three main elements, namely, characters, a plot, and a setting. Depending on the length, fiction can be divided into novels, novellas, and short stories. In terms of content, traditional Chinese fiction can be divided into the following broad categories: fantasy stories of gods and spirits, historical fiction, heroic legendary tales, and stories about human relations and social mores. In terms of genre, traditional Chinese fiction is divided into literary sketches, legendary tales, story- tellers’ prompt-books, and chapter-based novels. In terms of language, there is fiction in the classical language and vernacular fiction. Traditional Chinese fiction has evolved through different stages, with distinctive features for each period. The myths, legends and historical biographies of the pre-Qin and Han dynasties, and the fables in the works of the earlier Chinese thinkers were the sources of traditional Chinese fiction. The literary sketches by men of letters in the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties were embryonic forms of traditional fiction. The legendary tales of the Tang Dynasty marked the eventual emergence of Chinese fiction. The story-tellers’ prompt-books in the Song and Yuan dynasties laid the foundation that allowed traditional fiction to reach maturity. The novels of the Ming and Qing dynasties marked the peak in the development of pre-modern fiction. That period is famous for producing great Chinese classical novels, namely, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West, Outlaws of the Marsh and Dream of the Red Chamber. During and after the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement around 1919, a large amount of modern vernacular fiction appeared, bringing forth a message of science and democracy of the modern age.
DETAILED>>Small seal script is a style of calligraphy derived from big seal script. After unifying the country, the First Emperor of Qin（259-210BC） ordered Li Si（?-208BC）, his prime minister, to simplify the big seal script that was most popular in the Western Zhou period. This simplified script was officially issued as the standard form of handwriting. Small seal script uses beautifully cursive and uniform lines, facilitating handwriting and reading by reducing the number of variant forms of Chinese characters. Characters written in this style are gracefully long and symmetrical; they feature a smooth starting stroke and a natural, final vertical one. The curvy lines vary as the calligrapher wishes, thus producing many simple yet elegant variations. Calligraphers of all ages have loved small seal script, a unique style of calligraphic art. It was replaced by clerical script in the Han Dynasty.
DETAILED>>This term means testing for verification and validity. Wang Chong (27-97?) felt that verification and validation is the only method or standard for determining the correctness of an argument. Whether or not an idea is correct cannot be determined solely by empty words or cleverness; rather, it has to be proved through “verification and validation.”To Wang Chong, the “verification and validation” of an argument should not be based only on sensory experiences. Correct ideas can only be arrived at by using rational thinking to draw inferences from sensory experiences.
DETAILED>>Freehand brushwork is one of the traditional methods of brushwork expression in Chinese painting. Using abbreviated and willful brushwork, the artist suggests graphically the meaning and character of the object and its shape. The chief aim is to give rein to the artist’s subjective state and mood. It stresses flexibility in brushwork, unrestrained by unimportant details and rejecting naturalistic effects (in contrast with meticulous painting). This style of painting, while seemingly coarse and whimsical, is in fact highly conscious of, and strictly consistent with, standards of artistic creation. Besides demanding close observation and experience of natural objects prior to painting, such as that the various forms within the picture will be laid out appropriately, it also demands solid technical proficiency in order that the artistic intent be formed in imagination before taking shape in painting. Freehand brushwork is divided into greater freehand and lesser freehand, with the former often employing the ink-splashing technique. It had a significant influence on the production of operas and the development of acting techniques in later ages. The freehand style in Chinese-style opera is shown through consciously artificial, stylized motions, accompanied by singing and dancing, to present images artistically on the stage.
DETAILED>>This refers to the workings of the mind or heart, a term which first appeared in such classics as Guanzi, Xunzi, and The Book of Rites. In ancient times it was believed that a person’s mind or heart played out its role in accordance with certain laws, which were referred to with this term. Nevertheless, different schools of thought had their own views on what it was about. The term also relates to how the human heart directs the movement of the five sensory organs, and with the way one communicates, and identifies oneself with the outside world.
DETAILED>>The term means cognitive activities of the mind. As there are different views on the relationship between the mind and the external world, people’s understanding of the mind’s cognitive process also varies. Some people emphasize the role of the mind in shaping ethical standards in daily life and making them a source of inner strength. Cognition of the mind is a prerequisite for moral cultivation and ethical living. As the mind is often in a blocked or unstable state, it needs to be nurtured with proper guidance before it can play its due role. However, others argue that the mind’s cognitive activities make one concerned about the evolving complexity of the external world and feel anxious about life. It is therefore necessary to get rid of the mind’s cognitive activities so as to leave the mind in a state of tranquility free from outside interference.
DETAILED>>The term means the use of analogy, association, and inner sustenance in writing a poem to give implicit expression to one’s sentiments, thus enabling the poem to convey a subtle message. The term was first used by the Tang dynasty poet Chen Zi’ang（659-700）. Xing (兴) means the development of inner feelings invoked by external objects, and ji (寄) means finding sustenance in them. Later it was extended to mean that poetry should be written to convey a message of praise or satire. The term carried on the pre-Qin poetical tradition of creating inspiration by writing about a subject and stressed that while depicting sentiments in poetry, the poet should find sustenance in it. The term represented an important development of the theory of analogy and association. It played a major role in ensuring that poets in the prime of the Tang Dynasty broke away from the poetic style of the Qi and Liang of the Southern Dynasties, which pursued ornate language instead of inner sustenance, thus enabling Tang poetry to develop in a healthy way.
DETAILED>>The term refers to charm inherent in an inspiration, or charm created when the object or scene depicted in a poem is appreciated. It is a type of aesthetic enjoyment contained in a poem which is gained through the reader’s act of appreciation. In Canglang’s Criticism of Poetry, Yan Yu（？-1264）, a poetry critic of the Southern Song Dynasty, voiced his love for poetry’s emotional charm and argued against direct expression of an idea in poetry. He stressed the need to enable readers to gain insight and satisfaction in a natural way through personal reflection and contemplation. This term later became an important criterion for evaluating poetry, exerting a strong influence on the poetry theories of the Ming and Qing dynasties.
DETAILED>>Inspiring imagery is an artistic achievement of profound literary significance and with great aesthetic taste, obtained through the perfect blending of an author’s feelings with an objective situation or scenery. Xing (兴) is an impromptu inspiration of the author, and xiang (象) a material object he borrows from the external world in his writing. Tang-dynasty poetry critic Yin Fan first used the term “inspiring imagery” in his “Preface to A Collection of Poems by Distinguished Poets” in commenting on the works of poets in the golden period of the Tang Dynasty. It later became a standard for assessing the merit of a poetic work.
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Running script is a calligraphic form between cursive script and regular script. A Chinese character written in the style of running script retains the basic structure of characters written in official script. Running script features smoothly-linked strokes, and the characters written in this style are easy to recognize. Generally, people believe that running script was created by Liu Desheng of the Eastern Han Dynasty and became popular in the Wei and Jin eras. This writing style reminds one of drifting clouds and flowing water. It has no fixed arrangement for the radicals of a character and can be executed with any writing tools. The same characters written in this style by different people are different in appearance. The best-known masterpieces in this style are Wang Xizhi’s (303-361, or 307-365, 321-379) “Preface to the Collection of Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion,” Yan Zhenqing’s (708-784) “Draft Elegy to Nephew Ming,” and Su Shi’s (1037-1101) “The Cold Food Observance.” They are distinctive in style and have great aesthetic value.
Xing (形) refers to the form of an object, and ming (名) refers to its name. The ancient Chinese believed that objects have forms, and that each formed object has its own specific nature which distinguishes it from other objects, whereas its name specifies the object. An order comprised of names establishes the relationships between the objects as well as their positions in the order. Certain schools of thought felt that the forms and names inherent in objects already incorporate a certain rational order, and that those who govern should abide by and uphold this order. Other schools of thought believed that an order of forms and names could be created after the fact through punishments (xing) and education. When emphasizing the need to analyze and judge things and actions while meting out punishments, 形名 (form and name) is also rendered as 刑名(punishment and name).
DETAILED>>Form and spirit, or body and soul, are an important pair of concepts in Chinese philosophy on life. In terms of human life, these two concepts exist in unity and are inseparable. Their unity gives rise to life, while their separation leads to death. There are generally two opposing views about the relationship between the two concepts. One view holds that spirit is the essence of life, while body is only the form in which life exists. The other view is that body is the material basis for the existence of spirit, while spirit is the inner basis for the functioning of body. This pair of concepts also apply to the realm of aesthetics, referring to the form and appeal of architecture, or the form and content as well as the form and charm of literary works.
DETAILED>>This term refers to venerable doctors with good skills and by extension the entire profession of Chinese medicine. According to Biographies of Deities and Immortals by Ge Hong (281?–341), the famous doctor Dong Feng of the Three Kingdoms period lived on Mount Lu where he treated patients free of charge. All he asked from those who recovered from a serious illness was to plant five apricot trees and those who recovered from a minor ailment to plant one such tree. After some years, a lush wood of apricot trees appeared. He traded apricots for grain which he saved up to help the poor and needy. Later, people used apricot trees to refer to virtuous doctors with good skills, and in modern times, some medical organizations and journals in China used the designation “apricot trees” as their names. This term has become a synonym for Chinese medicine.
DETAILED>>This view was proposed by Xunzi（313？-238 BC）. According to him, human nature, which refers to proprieties humans naturally possess, includes physical life as well as various desires and perceptions. If people are allowed to only follow desire for external things, which is something inherent in human nature, it will lead to conflicts, and the society will fall into chaos. Moral conduct which is vital for maintaining order in society does not derive from human nature. Rather, it is acquired through deliberate efforts.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the features and limitations determined by the intrinsic nature of all things. Guo Xiang (？-312), a scholar in the Western Jin Dynasty, pointed out that each person or object has his or its own intrinsic natural attributes, such as size and shape of an object, or the life expectancy and intelligence or lack of it of a person. The natural attributes of a person or an object are inborn and therefore unchangeable. All things should remain content with their natural attributes. If people and objects follow their own nature and act within the scope of their natural attributes, they can enjoy unhindered freedom of movement.
DETAILED>>The term refers to an individual’s inner mind vis-à-vis the outside world, which consists of two aspects, namely, temperament and talent. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, xingling (inner self) became widely used in literary writing and criticism. It refers to the combination of a writer’s temperament and talent, other than his social ethics, political beliefs, and literary traditions; and it stresses that literature is inspired by traits of individuality and should give expression to them. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, along with the trend of giving free rein to individuality and shaking off intellectual straitjacket, renowned scholars such as Yuan Hongdao（1568-1610） and Yuan Mei （1716-1798）advocated giving full expression to one’s inner self, namely, one’s thoughts, sentiment, emotion and views. They underscored the role of intellectual and artistic individuality in literary creation as opposed to the rigid School of Principle of the earlier Song and Ming dynasties, literary dogma and blind belief in classicism which constrained people from expressing human nature and inhabited literary creativity. The Xingling School thus became an important school in literary creation.
DETAILED>>This view on human nature was first proposed by Mencius. As Mencius（372？-289 BC） saw it, human nature is the inherent moral character which a human being naturally possesses and which distinguishes him from an animal. In this sense, human nature underpins such virtues as benevolence, righteousness, sound social norms, and good judgment. However, good human nature does not automatically constitute virtuous conduct. People need to continuously cultivate good human nature in order to develop virtuous conduct.
DETAILED>>This term, which literally means power and splendor, refers to a natural and powerful artistic style and aesthetic taste. In Daoist terms, the Way features the great and vast power of nature, hence the term. Powerfulness is not deliberately created by the author. Rather, it is a majestic, forceful style of artistic expression flowing naturally from the inner strength built up in a work of art itself. Powerfulness cannot be achieved artificially; it has a great deal to do with an author’s disposition and self-cultivation. Such a work has a powerful style in terms of wording, syntactic structure or presentation of imagery. Giving full expression to the author’s emotions, it creates a powerful artistic impact.
DETAILED>>Void and peace mean that all distractions, such as desires and rational thoughts, should be dispelled to attain peace and purity of the soul. The idea of void and peace was first proposed by Laozi and Zhuangzi（369？-286 BC）, the founders of Daoism, and then used by Xunzi （313？-238 BC） to refer to a state of mental concentration. Such a state of mind is similar to the psychological conditions in appreciation of works of literature and art, which are characterized by being totally free from the awareness of oneself and the outside world, and free from any urge and desire. Therefore, thinkers and literary critics of earlier times used this term to explain the state of mind in literary and artistic creation and appreciation. It stressed the need for spiritual freedom in artistic creation, suggesting that this is an important precondition for reaching the highest level of aesthetic appreciation.
DETAILED>>This term refers to moral conduct that is discreet and unobtrusive. The Daoists believe this is the highest manifestation of morality in a ruler. Dao is the source of all beings and things, and is manifested through wuwei (无为) or non-action. By being discreet and unobtrusive in his moral conduct, the ruler thus emulates Dao. Xuande (玄德) requires the ruler to exercise restraint in his use of authority to avoid interfering with the natural state of his people, which he should comply with and maintain.
DETAILED>>This term was first used by Laozi as a way to understand dao. He believed that one cannot understand dao by calmly observing everything unless one abandons all distracting thoughts and biases, and keeps one’s mind as clear as a mirror. Later literary critics believed that the state of mind as required for xuanlan has similarities with the state of mind required for literary writing and appreciation, thus they made it an important term to mean one’s state of mind must transcend all desires and personal gains in literary writing and appreciation.
DETAILED>>The concept of xuantong (玄同) or hidden harmony first appeared in the Daoist classic Laozi. Daoism holds that a ruler should practice non-action, adjusting and assisting to enable the natural ways of the people. A ruler should not dictate the criteria for what is considered right or wrong, nor should the people under his rule be targeted discriminatorily based on such criteria. Likewise, a ruler should be consistent in aiding the people and should not flaunt power or higher status. Under the governing principle of non-action, harmony between the people and between them and the ruler is referred to as “hidden harmony.”
DETAILED>>This term refers to the traditional way through which men were selected and appointed to government offices. Designed to achieve an ideal state of rule, the method worked to select and recommend people with outstanding virtue and talent into the system of political power and put them to official posts, where they took charge of the governance of the country. Although the mechanism varied from dynasty to dynasty, it always emphasized a person’s moral integrity, ability, wisdom, and family background. It basically ensured that social elites had vertical mobility in the system of political power, and reflected the concepts of “rule of man” and “rule of virtue.”
DETAILED>>This refers mainly to the five-character-a-line poems of the Han and Wei dynasties in Selections of Refined Literature compiled by Xiao Tong (501-531), Crown Prince Zhaoming of the Liang Dynasty during the Southern Dynasties. Later, this term meant not just a specific type of poetry, but also both the prevailing poetic features of an era and general poetic style. Poems of this style were regarded as in the same rank as yuefu (乐府) poetry, which were folk songs and ballads collected and compiled by the Han government office in charge of musical preservation, or any poetic imitation equally suitable for musical composition, as well as gexing (歌行), which were odes to events or physical objects in free-verse form, and lüjüe (律绝), or poetry with fixed patterns. To poetic critics in later generations, xuanti (选体) poetry was synonymous with five-character poetry and was a standard way to write poems with five characters per line. In terms of style, it is elegant, richly colorful, and innovative. This type of poetry inherited the poetic tradition all the way from The Book of Songs and Odes of Chu to the Han and Wei dynasties, the Jin Dynasty, and the Song, Qi, and Liang during the Southern Dynasties. From the Tang Dynasty onward, many literary critics used the term “xuanti poetry” as a standard in their comments on poetry. This poetic style was criticized later by some creative-minded poets for its excessive emphasis on following the classical tradition.
DETAILED>>The term refers to vitality which is needed for the human or animal body to sustain its life and which reflects the state of life. It is something one is born with, representing the body’s needs of material things. A person exhibits different levels of vitality at different stages of life, reflecting changes in the strength of life. Vitality is unstable in youth； it reaches its peak in the prime of life, and in old age it wanes. Furthermore, different people have different levels of vitality, some overflowing with vigor, while others are subdued. People’s vitality can be changed by means of rites, music and through education； it is the basis for shaping a person’s moral and emotional trait.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a kind of classical music in China. Noble and pure, it was the music used by kings in ancient times when worshipping heaven, earth, and ancestors, receiving congratulations from other quarters of the world, or holding feasts and major ceremonial activities. Chinese classical music often eulogized the royal court’s accomplishments； its melodies were tranquil and stately, its wording elegant and tasteful, and its performance of song and dance followed explicit codes of etiquette. Rulers of all dynasties used this kind of music as an effective means to instruct their people and promote civic virtue. As a courtly tradition, the music was necessarily conservative. However, throughout history the assimilation of elements of folk song and dance, as well as the music and dance of foreign lands, inevitably led to innovation. Thus, it maintained throughout the ages the highest levels of musical excellence. After the Tang Dynasty, this kind of music spread to other Asian countries such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, becoming a constituent part of their musical culture.
DETAILED>>Highbrow and lowbrow, a dichotomy in literary criticism, refer to two kinds of literary and artistic works, namely, the refined versus the popular, and the lofty versus the vulgar. Highbrow describes works that are elegant and reflect what conforms with mainstream ideology, whereas lowbrow-art forms tend to meet popular aesthetic standard. From the perspective of art creation, highbrow art may be exquisite, but often appears affected, whereas lowbrow art, which has a folk origin, is natural, refreshing, unaffected, and unconstrained. From the Tang Dynasty onward, it became a trend for men of letters to borrow the best from popular art, thus further spurring the growth of lowbrow art, enriching cultural life and leading to more diversified artistic expressions.
DETAILED>>Emperor Yan (the Fiery Emperor) and Emperor Huang (the Yellow Emperor), legendary Chinese rulers in pre-dynastic times, were actually tribal leaders. Emperor Yan, whose family name was Jiang, was known as Shennongshi while Emperor Huang, whose family name was Gongsun, was known as Xuanyuanshi. They originally lived in central China where their tribes gradually merged with those in eastern and southern China. People in these tribes proliferated and made up the main body of the Chinese nation (who were referred to as the Han people after the Han Dynasty and Tang people after the Tang Dynasty). Hence, they have been revered as the ancestors of the Chinese nation. Their tribes, and the tribe headed by the Yellow Emperor in particular, achieved the highest level of civilization. Many important cultural advancements and technical innovations in ancient China were believed to be created by these two tribes. They have therefore been seen as the forefathers of the Chinese civilization. In modern times, they have been considered as symbols of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. Today, Chinese descendants residing in different parts of the world proudly regard themselves as “descendants of the Fiery Emperor and the Yellow Emperor” or simply “descendants of the Yellow Emperor.” In this regard, “Yan and Huang” have become cultural symbols of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>This term referred originally to the music used by emperors, dukes and princes when they held rituals and feasts. Since the Sui and Tang dynasties, it had come to refer to various kinds of popular music played during feasting and entertainment at court. The term “banquet music” was first seen in The Rites of Zhou, at which time such music generally drew on the music of the common folk and neighboring ethnic minority groups, and comprised both songs and dances. It can be said that outside influence is a characteristic of banquet music from the beginning. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, when there was a great influx of foreign music into China, the so-called Ten Types of Music for feasting and entertainment at court were identified and categorized, among which banquet music was placed at the top of the list. Later generations would refer to the music and dance of Sui and Tang comprising elements from China and abroad, singing and dancing, refined and popular, as banquet music. The folk music and dance of the Tang Dynasty were all categorized as banquet music. Such music was also sometimes used in large ceremonial activities such as ancestral rituals and royal meetings. Banquet music lasted through the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, and even today some folk music and traditional opera tunes can still be found to have elements of the banquet music of the Sui and Tang dynasties.
DETAILED>>This term means to provide the people with necessities of life and educate them. According to The Book of History, this is what constitutes good governance. To reach this goal, the ruler must manage well the “six necessities and three matters,” the six necessities being metal, wood, water, fire, land, and grain, and the three matters being fostering virtue, proper use of resources, and ensuring people’s livelihood. This concept of governance, which focuses on promoting both economic and ethical progress, is people-centered.
DETAILED>>While this literally means "lines employed in painting," it is used to refer to the fundamental rules guiding the art of painting and, furthermore, to the universal laws of the formation and development of everything in the universe. This notion was first put forward by the Qing-dynasty painter Shi Tao（1641-1718？）, though his ideas were controversial among contemporary scholars and artists. Shi, drawing inspiration from Daoist philosophy and Chan theory, and perhaps from Fuxi's use of a single line to symbolize yin and yang as a unitary whole in creating the eight trigrams (eight combinations of three whole or broken lines formerly used in divination), held that all things in the universe derive from a single oneness. All tangible things under a painter's brush, likewise, forever have that oneness at their core. For him, oneness means naught. Painting is thus a process of generating tangible objects from nothing. This is also the ultimate dao -- a combination of the way of painting with that of all things in the universe. As well, oneness is a set of broadly applicable rules present throughout the process of painting. Each stroke or line reflects these rules. The oneness in painting theory encompasses multiple relationships between oneness on the one hand, and the dao, nothingness, tangibility, and multiplicity on the other. It is rich in philosophical implication and artistic significance. This term later became an important part of traditional Chinese aesthetic thought and painting theory.
DETAILED>>Striving for a society where people are content and in comfort was a foundational principle that the ancient Chinese believed essential to guide the design of state systems, policy formulation, and the governance of a nation. Upholding this precept was considered pivotal for leaders wanting to receive the protective support of tian (天 heaven) – a traditional concept of Chinese governance where tian presides, the ruler mediates, and the people are the central focus. This dynamic is encapsulated in the idea that tian aligns with the will of the people, as depicted in The Book of History, “What the people desire, tian will surely give effect to.” The core responsibility and goal of a leader is to ensure the peace and stability of the people. Yet, going beyond that, nurturing a sense of contentment among the people provides a compass – guiding the path towards fulfilling these responsibilities. This principle guides leaders to prioritize the comfort and needs of the people, while carefully avoiding the imposition of their personal desires on the populace.
DETAILED>>The term yilun (彝伦), which corresponds to constant relations, first appears in The Book of History. In Chinese antiquity, it was believed that the relations of human life followed certain constant laws or yilun, which were derived from the imitation of and compliance with the heavenly way, and thus reflected the authority of Heaven. Yilun regulated the relations of human life and guaranteed its order. The primary task of the rulers, especially the Son of Heaven, was to grasp and follow these constant laws.
DETAILED>>First formulated by Wu Qi (440?-381 BC), a far-famed statesman and military strategist of the Warring States Period, the concept refers to either armed forces fighting for justice or morally justified wars. In this context, yi (义) specifically means “forbidding violence and eliminating chaos,” denoting acts generally regarded as righteous. As an act of extreme violence itself, a war should only be waged for a good reason and not as a means to bully the weak or assault the few. It should least of all be used out of such emotional factors as greed and anger. The Chinese have advocated the just and judicious use of military force since ancient times, with the firm conviction that justice is invincible. This is a manifestation of the Chinese humanistic spirit.
DETAILED>>Yi fa refers to the guidelines and criteria for prose writing advocated by Fang Bao (1668-1749) of the Qing Dynasty, which concerns content, structure, and editing. He held up the structural composition of the historical texts The Spring and Autumn Annals and Records of the Historian as examples of fine prose, and popularized them. Yi (义) refers to content and meaningfulness, with an emphasis on substance and logic; fa (法) refers to structure and writing techniques, with an emphasis on appropriate language and sequence. Yi is primary and fa adjusts accordingly to express the content in a flexible and varied way, so as to ensure that the author’s opinion is clearly stated and the argument is powerful. The concept of yi fa is the cornerstone for the prose-writing theory of the Tongcheng School of the Qing Dynasty.
DETAILED>>Governance based on morality, kindness and fairness is first proposed by Mozi (468?-376 BC), in contrast to lizheng (力政) meaning governance based on violence and coercion. This concept follows the “principles of the highest authority,” which in practice should be manifested by the big not bullying the small, the strong not crushing the weak, equal treatment for all regardless of wealth, status or intelligence, so all should coexist amicably. This is similar to the Confucian concept of the “kingly way,” or benevolent governance. From ancient times to the present, Chinese culture has advocated governance with virtue and justice, and abhorred rule by violence and coercion.
DETAILED>>Originally, the term referred to six forms of classical arts and various crafts, but it later extended to include artistic creation and aesthetic appreciation. The six forms of arts as defined by Confucianism are rituals, music, archery, charioteering , writing and mathematics. These constituted the basic requirements for cultivating a man of virtue. These six arts also included what later generations deemed as arts. Sometimes, the term also meant the six classics, namely, The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, The Book of Music, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. Zhuangzi（369？-286 BC）, on his part, emphasized the connection between crafts and arts, regarding them as physical and mental creative activities that help one gain insight into dao. The various ideas about arts put forward by Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist scholars defined the nature and method of Chinese arts, which seek unity between artwork and real life, fusion of senses and experiences, and integration of techniques and personality, with achieving artistic conception as the ultimate aim. Since the introduction of Western art theories in modern China, arts have become an independent discipline covering all types of arts created with skill and innovation. The concept of arts today incorporate both traditional Chinese and contemporary Western notions of arts.
In ancient times, commentaries and proposals were submitted by officials to emperors to discuss state affairs and offer solutions. The term yi (议 commentary) refers to an official discussion and analysis of state affairs with the emperor to air one’s views, often different from that held by the emperor and other officials, and propose solutions. The term dui (对 proposal) refers to the act of proposing strategies and answering the emperor’s questions. These two terms are discussed together in the“Commentary and Proposal” section of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. The general term “commentary and proposal” encompasses all types of official writing. According to Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties, to produce a good piece of official writing, one should have a good knowledge of ancient and current institutions as well as codes of law and major examples, identify problems, objectively and logically analyze them, and propose feasible solutions. Such writing should not be pompous in style or ignore facts. Liu Xie stressed that commentaries and proposals should be based on solid facts and result-oriented and that one who wrote them should have vision and talent. He admired those who were knowledgeable and persuasive and could solve difficult problems. His views on writing official documents are still of value today when it comes to writing government documents, academic papers and commentaries.
DETAILED>>The term "ease and simplicity" comes from the first half of Xi Ci（“The Great Treatise”), a chapter in The Book of Changes. Xi Ci holds that the law of the universe as embodied by heaven and earth is one of ease and simplicity. Therefore, it encompasses everything, and is easy to understand and follow. Later, some scholars championed the way of "ease and simplicity" as a necessary quality for rulers. They emphasized that government policies should be easy to understand and simple and that the government should refrain from excessive intervention in people's affairs. Other scholars stress, as a matter of self-cultivation, the necessity to use the way of ease and simplicity to discover and realize one's true self and cultivate a sense of morality in oneself.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a state where the scene described in a literary or artistic work reflects the sense and sensibility intended. Jing (境) originally meant perimeter or boundary. With the introduction of Buddhism into China during the late Han, Wei and Jin dynasties, the idea gained popularity that the physical world was but an illusion, and that only the mind was real in existence. So jing came to be seen as a realm that could be attained by having sensibilities of the mind. As a literary and artistic term, jing has several meanings. The term yijing (意境) was originally put forward by renowned Tang poet Wang Changling (?- 756 ?). It describes an intense aesthetic experience in which one’s perception of an object reaches a realm of perfect union with the implication denoted by the object. Aesthetic appreciation in the mind is characterized by “projecting meaning into a scene” and “blending sentiment with scenery.” In contrast with the term yixiang (意象 image), yijing fully reveals the implication and the heightened aesthetic sense that an artistic work is intended to deliver. The concept is extended to include other notions such as sentiment and scene, actual and implied meanings, or mind and object. It also raises literary and artistic works to a new realm of aesthetic appreciation. After evolving through several dynasties, this concept developed into an important criterion to judge the quality of a literary or artistic work, representing an accomplishment drawing on classical writings through ages. It has also become a hallmark for all outstanding literary and artistic works. The term also represents a perfect union between foreign thoughts and culture and those typically Chinese.
Imagery refers to a typical image in literary works, which embodies the author’s subjective feelings and unique artistic conceptions. Yi (意) literally means an author’s feelings and thoughts, and xiang (象) refers to the image of a material object in the external world, an artistic image reflecting the author’s thoughts and feelings. In literary creation, imagery often refers to those images in nature with which an author’s feelings and thoughts are associated. Emphasizing the harmonious relationship between beauty in both form and content, it is a mature state of literary creation.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the meaning implicit in an inspiration, or meaning and charm generated when poetic emotion encounters an external object or scene. It is an artistic image an author creates when appreciating the beauty and charm intrinsic in an object or scene. According to this term, an author should incorporate his sentiments and thoughts into the object or scene depicted to convey them through artistic images and aesthetic appreciation. This will spark the reader’s imagination and thus enable him to gain a deeper appreciation of a poem.
DETAILED>>This term highlights the relationship between inheritance and innovation. Yin (因) implies inheritance or adoption, whereas ge (革) means reform or innovation. The whole notion can be traced back to Confucius (551-479 BC). In his view, the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties had all modified their respective codes of etiquette in accordance with their own circumstances and on the basis of a previous era’s established rules. “Modified” here implies the idea of innovation grounded in inheritance. Yang Xiong (53 BC-AD 18) of the Han Dynasty expounded this idea more systematically. This concept was later used by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties in literary criticism, giving rise to the notion of “continuity and change.” All these ideas reflect a unity of opposites, stressing constant change in history and tradition, favoring innovation grounded in past experience and achievements, as well as avoiding either unquestioning adherence to convention or blind pursuit of novelty. Besides literary and artistic creation, the concept above is also applicable to academic research and even the governance of a country.
The primary meaning of yin and yang is the orientation of things in relation to the sun, with yang meaning the sunny side and yin the shady side. There are two extended meanings: 1) two opposite kinds of qi (气) in nature; and 2) two basic contrary forces or qualities that coexist, thus the active, hot, upward, outward, bright, forward, and strong are yang, while the passive, cold, downward, inward, dark, backward, and weak are yin. The interaction between yin and yang, or yin qi and yang qi, determines the formation and existence of all things. The theory of yin and yang later became the basis for ancient Chinese to explain and understand the universe and everything in it, social order, and human relations. For example, heaven is yang and earth is yin, ruler is yang and subordinates are yin, husband is yang and wife is yin, noble is yang and ignoble is yin, leading is yang and following is yin.
DETAILED>>In ancient China, this term referred to those who were capable of being an official or even a ruler but who chose to live in seclusion. They had different reasons for this. One might be that they were tired of formalities and red tape and considered such a role as hypocritical, and wished instead for a simple and natural way of life. Another reason was that some were dissatisfied with the corrupt politics of the day, and did not want to get involved, or wished to avoid being persecuted. Yet others chose to withdraw into a hermit-like way of life just because they wanted to give away their posts or positions to those who were more capable and more virtuous. Such people usually had good virtue, but they were not mainstream. It might however be considered being hypocritical to persist in such a way of life for its own sake, and be seen as a dereliction of social responsibility.
DETAILED>>“Concealment” refers to keeping things hidden, whereas “revelation” means making things abundantly clear. As an artistic and literary term, this pair of opposites refers to a creative process in which some things need to be hidden and others abundantly clear. When applied to semantics or rhetoric, it refers to subtle or explicit modes of expression. An ideal work of art is marked by a proper balance between concealment and revelation. Understatement or hidden meaning does not mean being cryptic, but rather being profound in significance. On the other hand, plainness of wording or conspicuousness of meaning does not mean sheer transparency, but rather clarity. Generally speaking, concealment and revelation are not mutually exclusive. They are instead interchangeable and feature two-way dialectic mobility, revealing dao in constant change.
This term means that prose and poetry may contain latent sentiments and thoughts, as well as expressions and sentences that present an apparent sense of beauty. “Latent sentiment and evident beauty” first appeared as the title of a chapter in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. There, “latent sentiment” means what lies beyond events and landscapes in a narrative or a description, triggering imaginations on the part of the reader. On the other hand, “evident beauty” refers to the kind of beauty created by expressions and sentences in a piece of writing, which bring out that latent meaning. The latent and the apparent qualities are inseparable, constituting an aesthetic feature of good literary works. Later, this term developed into a rhetorical device in writing prose and poetry.
DETAILED>>Entertainers, known as Youren (优人), or Changyou (倡优), Paiyou (俳优), or Youling (优伶), were folk artists who performed story-telling, dancing, acrobatics, and comedy. After the Song and Yuan dynasties, they also performed in operas. Initially formed as small groups of entertainers sponsored by court aristocrats for entertainment, they evolved into professional performing troupes as cities grew in size after the Song and Yuan dynasties. In old China when ideological and ethical principles were valued to the neglect of entertainment, entertainers were low in social status. Sima Qian (145or 135?-? BC), in the "Biographies of Jesters" section of his Records of the Historian, praised entertainers for boldly giving moral advice to rulers. This practice later became a major criterion for commenting on entertainers, and it also became a conscious choice of aspiring entertainers.
This term means to be friendly and kind to each other in peaceful co-existence. You (友) in its ancient ideographic form consists of two hands extending in the same direction, metaphorically indicating common interest and offering a helping hand to each other. Shan (善) means to be gracious and kind. When these two Chinese characters are used together as in the current term, they denote a close and harmonious relationship among people, a bond that transcends blood ties. This kind of bond is based on the principle of righteousness commonly upheld by all parties involved. To date, as a hallmark of good character and ethical conduct, friendliness is still deemed as an essential element in the value system for building a harmonious and ideal society.
DETAILED>>As opposed to wudai (无待 having nothing to depend on), youdai (有待) literally means “having something to depend on.” The concept comes from Zhuangzi. The author Zhuangzi (369?-286BC) believed that both humans and things are never independent of their surroundings and thus are subject to external restrictions. In other words, they always “have something to depend on.” In this sense, youdai reveals the interconnection and interdependence between all things that exist. Only when a person is able to detach himself from his surroundings and clear his mind of all external constraints and encumbrances can he attain the free and unhindered state of wudai.
DETAILED>>Daoist scholars divided governance by rulers into two categories: action and non-action. Here action generally means that rulers impose their will on others or the world with no respect for the intrinsic nature of things or without following such nature. This will undermine the natural state, leading to the breakdown of order. Daoist scholars therefore advocated non-action to overcome the defect of action. Scholars of Confucianism and other schools of thought, however, favored action taken by rulers as necessary. The term also refers to action a person takes to achieve success.
DETAILED>>The term has three definitions. First, it describes two different dimensions of things: One is with form and the other without form. Second, it refers to two different stages or states of a thing during its generation, existence, and demise. You (有) refers to the state of a thing after it has come into being and before it dies out; wu (无) refers to the state of a thing before its birth and after its death. Third, you refers to any tangible or identifiable thing or the sum total of such things; wu refers to the original source or ontological existence, which is intangible and unidentifiable, and transcends all specific objects. With regard to the third definition, some philosophers consider wu to be the original source or ontological existence of the world, and you comes from wu; others believe that you is fundamentally significant, and dispute the notion that you owes its existence to wu. Despite their differences, you and wu are mutually dependent.
DETAILED>>As opposed to wuxing (无形 incorporeal), youxing (有形) literally means“corporeal”or“existing in a physical form.”Forms, which are measured by size, length, weight, and so forth, help to differentiate one thing from another. The measurements of the corporeal serve as reference points for nomenclature. In ancient times, some people believed that the generation and changing of the corporeal relied upon incorporeal nature or origin, while others believed in the self-generation of the corporeal and rejected the existence of an incorporeal nature or origin.
DETAILED>>This term means widely held ideas and attitudes among the general public. The term is made up of two Chinese characters, with the first yu (舆)referring to the general public and the second lun (论)to commentaries, perspectives, or opinions. All wise rulers in history paid attention to consulting the general public for their opinions before making policy decisions, hoping that the resultant policy would meet the needs of the people and be rational and feasible. In modern times, the term is used as the Chinese equivalent of “public opinion” and generally refers to the views of people in the society or prevailing points of view reflective of what most people think. Therefore it has become a basic concept for many disciplines, such as politics, ethics, and social psychology. In ancient times, the term reflected the governing principle of “for the people.” In modern times, however, it reflects the governing principle of “by the people.” These two are different in nature, but are interchangeable and interrelated.
DETAILED>>The original meaning of the term is the eave and beam of a house, while its extended meaning is time and space as well as the whole world composed of limitless time and space. The first character yu (宇) means heaven and earth as well as all the directions of north, south, east, west, the above, and the below. The second character zhou（宙）means all of time, the past, present, and future. Together, the term means infinite space and endless time. In Chinese philosophy, “theories of the universe” are concerned with the existence of the world in an ontological sense, and with its process of evolution.
DETAILED>>Yuanqi refers to qi in its original state, with yuan (元) denoting the beginning or the initial point. Yuanqi can neither be defined by shape nor be attributed to yin or yang. It existed prior to the emergence of heaven, earth, and all the things in between. After experiencing certain changes, it was separated into the qi of yin and yang, or that of heaven and earth. Hence the generation of all the things between heaven and earth. Some ancients regarded yuanqi as the origin of the world, while others believed that it was derived from the void, a more primitive state of being. Yuanqi sometimes refers to the qi that constitutes human bodies and all the other things in general.
DETAILED>>The term originally meant the head of a person. Metaphorically, it refers to the Son of Heaven, or the ruler. The ancient Chinese likened the power structure of a country to the body of a person, with the ruler functioning as its head, the officials as its body. The ruler was highly esteemed and the most important person, often exerting a crucial influence on the fate of a country. Yet, the ruler and his officials were parts of the same body. They depended on each other, worked collaboratively, handled state affairs together, and shared a common stake. Such an understanding was a nascent view that considered a country as an integral whole. Since modern times began, this term has come to mean the leader of a country, whether an emperor or a king who has inherited the throne, or the elected president of a country. 引例 Citations：
DETAILED>>In Buddhist scriptures, “consummate interfusion” has two meanings: (1) the original state of all things, which are interfused with and governed by each other, and (2) a viewpoint on truth that argues against adherence to any judgment. The Tiantai School interprets “consummate interfusion” in this way: it develops the concept of satyadvaya (the two truths) into “the three levels of truth”– the empty truth, the false truth, and the middle-way truth. According to this theory, one shall neither descend into nor detach oneself from the two extremes: emptiness and existence. Such non-duality demonstrates the nature of consummate interfusion. The Huayan School offers another interpretation with “the consummate interfusion of six aspects.” It argues that all things can be judged from six aspects: the general, the particular, the identity, the differentiated, the integrated, and the destructive aspect. Although they appear as three opposites, these aspects, consubstantial with one another, transcend conceptual opposition.
DETAILED>>The term is a translation of the Sanskrit word pratītyasamutpāda. Yuan (缘) means conditions; qi (起) means origination. That is to say, all things, phenomena, and social activities arise out of the combinations of causes and conditions. They exist in the continuous relationship between causes and conditions. Thus all things originate, change, and demise depending upon certain conditions. Dependent origination is the fountainhead of Buddhist thought and forms the common theoretical basis for all Buddhist schools and sects. Buddhism uses this concept to explain everything in the universe, the constant changes of social and spiritual phenomena, and the internal laws of origination, change, and demise.
DETAILED>>This term means using a literary form to express resentment towards social injustice and satirize and admonish those in power. It especially refers to the poems in The Book of Songs, in which poets criticized and satirized the politics and the ruling class of the time to vent their indignation and resentment. Scholars in the Han Dynasty considered resentment in The Book of Songs as controlled venting and the satiric sting constructive admonishment. They therefore combined the two into a term of literary criticism with positive implication. After the Tang and Song dynasties, the term gained a connotation of intense criticism and indignation. However, the essential meaning was still a yearning for good governance and social harmony.
DETAILED>>In a broad sense, the term means a style of traditional opera popular in the Jin Dynasty. In a narrow sense, it refers to the scores and librettos used in this type of drama, which was performed mainly in hangyuan (行院), or brothels, hence the name. This genre was very popular in the early Jin Dynasty but no separate, complete works have come down to us today. The format is as follows: short acts, simple plots, humorous language and comic gestures. The main performer fujing (副净) provides the humor while the supporting performer fumo (副末) provides comic backup. The form inherited a great deal from the Tang Dynasty two-person comic banter of canjunxi (参军戏) , and Song-dynasty zaju comedy. The brothel scores had a great influence on the development of the later Yuan zaju or opera.
DETAILED>>This is an ancient style of official communication, through which a high-ranking official expressed his gratitude or presented a petition to the emperor. Zhang, or memorial of gratitude, and biao, or memorial of petition, differed little in style. Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties observed in his literary critique The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons that an ideal piece of writing should convey its essential message in a clear and in-depth way, state or analyze a case succinctly and thoroughly, and obey rules of ritual propriety and standards of writing.
DETAILED>>This term has two meanings. First, it means words, sentences, paragraphs, or an entire text. In his literary critique, The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties discussed the general principles and rules governing the wording, syntax, paragraphs arrangement and text composition in writing. While stressing the importance of writing for a worthy goal, he also called for meticulous depiction in terms of wording and textual composition. This provided a source of inspiration to writers of later generations to improve grammar, practice literary criticism and launch theoretical discussions on writing. Second, this term also means an ancient annotative work showing how to divide a text into paragraphs and analyze syntax. Such works discuss paragraph arrangement in the Confucian classics, explain the meanings of words and expressions, and offer a general interpretation of the text. Typical examples are Annotations on the Odes of Chu by Wang Yi of the Eastern Han Dynasty, as well as Annotations on The Great Learning and Annotations on The Doctrine of the Mean by Zhu Xi (1130-1200) of the Southern Song Dynasty.
DETAILED>>Imperial edicts consist of zhao (诏) and ce (策). Zhao were orders made by an emperor while ce were issued by the emperor to confer commendation on officials and appoint and dismiss them. Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties discussed in his literary critique The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons various types of official documents used by the emperor to his ministers and those used by higher-ranking officials to lower-ranking ones. Liu Xie pointed out that these types of official documents were highly authoritative and influential, setting rules for the whole nation to follow. Conferring commendations were like “the moon and shining stars” or “timely rain and dew,” showing the emperor’s loving care for his subjects. Reprimands and punishments, on the other hand, showed his “thunderous rage” or the “chill of autumn frost.” These kinds of official documents should be clear-cut in stand, well thought of, based on laws and rules as well as common sense and facts, and correct in wording and syntax. Such official documents should be solemn in tone and refined and moderate in style.
DETAILED>>This refers to the rectification of what things are called so that name and reality correspond. A name is what is used to refer to a thing, which determines the attributes of the thing and its relations with other things. “Reality” refers to a thing or an entity that its name refers to. The name of a thing should conform to what the thing actually is. However, very often name and reality do not match in real life. To deal with this situation, the name of a thing should not go beyond the nature of the thing； likewise, the reality referred to by the name must not go beyond the scope that the name implies. The “rectification of names” is an important way to maintain the social order constructed by the names. Various schools of thoughts have agreed on the necessity of rectifying names, but they differ in their views of the concrete meanings of the names to be rectified.
DETAILED>>It is originally a term in ancient Chinese music. It has two meanings： 1) The refined and pure music encouraged by Confucian and official circles; sometimes it was also a general term for the five notes of ancient music gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu. 2) Examples of the finest poems and songs. Confucian scholars believed that the content and music of The Book of Songs were the best and most refined, and thus were set as the models for zhengsheng, or the finest poetry. Gao Bing(1350-1423) of the Ming Dynasty named his collection of carefully selected Tang poems A Selection of Finest Tang Poems in an effort to present the finest and purest examples of different styles of Tang poetry for later generations.
In ancient days, this term had two meanings. One, it referred to correctness or orthodoxy, specifically in the interpretation of ancient classics. The term was often used as part of a book title, such as Correct Meaning of The Book of Changes and Correct Meaning of Mao’s Annotations on The Book of Songs. Two, it referred to principles of justice that were universally accepted and righteous. In modern times, the second meaning has prevailed. Today, it has become one of the core values of the Chinese society.
This refers to popular folk music in history, as opposed to formal ceremonial music. The term, originally “the music of Zheng and Wei,” referred to music from the states of Zheng and Wei during the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods. Unlike stately, grand and highly structured classical music, the music of Zheng featured free-flowing melodies and a wealth of variations, with lyrics that often spoke of the love between men and women. Confucius （551-479 BC） felt that works of this sort gave free rein to personal emotions and lacked purity in ways of thinking, that they were not conducive to educating people through etiquette and music, and should therefore not be permitted. Many scholars subsequently used “the music of Zheng” to refer to lowbrow arts, but others considered these tunes to be folk songs which were a form of popular culture, a source of artistic creation and a complement to highbrow arts.
The term has two meanings. First, it refers to all measures for governing a country. Zheng (政) stands for decrees, rules, and ordinances, and zhi (治) refers to their implementation, that is, the way in which the people are governed. Second, it refers to a state of stable and sound governance of the country, with an efficient and clean government, a prosperous economy, and a peaceful society. In modern times, the term is used in the sense of “politics,” as it refers to policies, measures, and actions that governments, political parties, social groups, or individuals adopt in domestic or international affairs.
DETAILED>>Knowing others means to know their ability, integrity, will, and other qualities. It is a prerequisite for the rational construction of various interpersonal relationships. Especially in the political sphere, those who govern need to know people to give them appropriate duties. However, ancient Chinese also realized that people often lacked true knowledge of others due to their own and external factors. Besides, people’s words and actions could sometimes obscure their true situation. Therefore, understanding a person’s actual situation requires a high degree of wisdom.
DETAILED>>The term means to know heaven’s significance to people. To the ancient Chinese thinkers, “heaven” could mean different things, and it has an inexorable impact on human affairs in various ways. Hence, given heaven’s influence, it is crucial for people to understand heaven if they are to control themselves and the world in which they live. Because of the complexities in the meaning of heaven and in the relationship between heaven and humans, there are also different forms and paths for understanding heaven. For example, Mencius (372?-289 BC) felt that one could understand heaven by fully realizing the innate goodness in one’s nature, whereas Xunzi (313?-238 BC) felt that understanding heaven meant appropriately meeting the needs of one’s natural physical functions in a way which accorded with the rules of propriety.
DETAILED>>The ability to recognize individuals with both moral virtue and competence, or to discern the merits and shortcomings of people, has been a profound pursuit throughout Chinese history. Many historical classics suggest that the future of a well-governed state hinges on its ability to recognize and leverage the role of virtuous and competent individuals. Identifying such outstanding talent requires those in power to not only possess distinct moral and intellectual character, but also a humility with which to guard against self-glorification. This ability, which is at the heart of good governance, is crucial to effective governance.
DETAILED>>“Knowledge” refers to awareness and examination of the principles underlying human relations in everyday life, and “application” refers to the implementation of these principles in everyday life. “Knowledge and application,” used in ancient China, were not in the general sense of having knowledge of external objects, or taking action to utilize and transform external things. Rather, they were recognition and application of principles underlying human relations in everyday life. One acquires “knowledge” in different ways: through visual perception, hearing, or mental reflection and insight. Some people think that “knowledge” is difficult and that “application” is easy. Some think that “knowledge” is easy and that “application” is difficult. Some think that “knowledge” and “application” are equally difficult. As for the relationship between “knowledge” and “application”, some maintain that knowledge and application are united as one. Others think that knowledge and application are separate. These varied understanding of “knowledge and application” determine different ways of fostering virtue and of instruction concerning human relations.
DETAILED>>This term means to discern the true meaning of statements. This concept is mentioned in early Confucian classics such as The Analects and Mencius. Confucianism regarded statements as the vehicle through which people express themselves and communicate with others. However, for various reasons, statements often cannot accurately, faithfully or fully convey the true meaning that was intended to convey. Hence Confucianism emphasized the need to discern statements to find out why they deviated from the true meaning and further explore it.
DETAILED>>The term is about appreciating and understanding the ideas in literary and artistic works and the thoughts of their authors. The original meaning was feeling a sense of resonance with music. It was later extended by literary critics in the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties to mean resonance or empathy between writers / artists and their readers / viewers. As a core concept in literary criticism, it touches upon both general and particular issues in artistic creation and appreciation, involves rich intellectual implications, and meshes with the audience’s response in Western criticism, receptive aesthetics, and hermeneutics.
DETAILED>>A poet should directly express his thoughts and sentiments when he is inspired. This is a concept for writing poems proposed by poetry critic Zhong Rong （？-518？）of the Southern Dynasties in his work The Critique of Poetry as a reaction to the excessive use of allusions and quotes from earlier works. Inspired by naturalist ideas of Daoism and by his own reading of the fine works of earlier poets, he developed a new form of poetic creation which he named “direct quest.” By this, he meant directly describing matters that one senses and learns about, directly expressing one’s inner feelings, and creating aesthetic images in which the sensibilities match up with current realities. The theory of inner self used in Ming- and Qing-dynasty poetics was influenced by this idea.
DETAILED>>This term means that the description and language used in poetry should be direct and straight forward rather than implied. Here, zhi (致) means reaching to something. The origin of this term may be traced to the concept of direct search first proposed by Zhong Rong (?-518?) of the Southern Dynasties. He disapproved of the excessive use of allegories in some poems, maintaining that a poem could only be written when a poet was inspired by external objects. Whether describing scenery or expressing his thoughts, the poet should present his sentiments with vivid writing while avoiding the use of rhetoric. Yin Fan, a Tang Dynasty critic of poetry who followed Zhong Rong’s view, put forward the term “direct expression,” believing that one should use simple, clear and vivid language to describe both scenery and his sentiment.
DETAILED>>This term stands for deep and genuine emotions. The expression already existed in Pre-Qin times, but only during the late Ming Dynasty did it become a term in literary theory, when playwright Tang Xianzu (1550-1616) introduced the concept into literary creation. Influenced by the leftist faction of Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind, Tang Xianzu put special emphasis on “passion” in literary creation as opposed to “principle,” as was advocated by the Neo-Confucian School of Principle of the Song and Ming dynasties who suppresses emotions with "principle," and Tang criticized this strongly. He believed that “passion”was the driving force in literary creation, hence his theory of “true passion.” In his view, the world was not void of passion, and neither were human lives. The highest status of living a passionate life was to have true passion which would then lead to true beauty and thus achieve unity between truth and beauty. To him, true passion was best expressed through drama, as he claimed that “passion will turn into dreams, and dreams into drama.” His theory gave voice to spiritual and individual freedom. As such, it delivered a powerful blow against the feudal codes of ethics coming down from the Song and Ming dynasties.
DETAILED>>The Middle Way manifests the principle of impartiality. It stands in contrast to partial behavior. Ancient Chinese believed that the existence and changes of all things in the universe obey a single basic law, which is shown through human action and conduct. This is the Middle Way. People should comply with the Middle Way in both speech and action. It can be achieved, Confucian scholars hold, by avoiding all excessive as well as inadequate words and actions, thus attaining impeccable morality. Buddhists advocate practicing the Middle Way in order to see things in their true light and break free of human suffering. Different schools of thought and religious sects vary in their understanding of the specific content of this concept.
This term refers to the areas along the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River where ancient Huaxia (华夏) people or the Han people lived. Originally, the term Zhongguo (中国) meant both this region and its culture. The Huaxia people established their states along the Yellow River. Believing the areas were located in the center of the world, they called it Zhongguo (the Central Country, as against other areas around it). Later, the term was used to refer to the Central Plains in North China and the states founded in that area. Since modern times, Zhongguo has been used to refer to the entire territory and sovereignty of China.
DETAILED>>Balanced harmony is an ideal state of human mind. When people’s emotions such as joy, anger, sorrow, and happiness are expressed in an unbiased way in keeping with the rites, a state of mind featuring balanced harmony is achieved. If a ruler can reach such a state of mind and exercise governance accordingly, everything in heaven and earth will be in its proper place, be orderly and in harmony with each other. This will deliver common prosperity and development for all.
DETAILED>>This term is an abbreviation of the compound word formed by Zhongguo (中国) and Huaxia (华夏). Here, hua (华) also means “flower” or “flowery,” which was used as an analogy for a splendid culture. The ancestors of the Huaxia people established their state in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, which they thought was the center (zhong) of the world and which had a flourishing culture (hua), so the state was called Zhonghua. This multi-ethnic state, with the Huaxia people as the predominant group of its population, later began its territorial expansions, and the places where it extended to became part of Zhonghua. In modern times, Zhonghua became a term denoting China, the Chinese people, and its culture.
DETAILED>>This is an idea put forward by Mencius (372?-289BC?), who held that enjoying music alone was not as rewarding as enjoying it with others. His argument for sharing stemmed from his philosophy that calls for caring about and being considerate towards ordinary people as well as being people-centered and benevolent in governing. This idea from Mencius was adopted by subsequent scholar-officials, and Qian Gongfu (1021-1072) of the Northern Song Dynasty was one of them. Qian built on the South Lake a pavilion called Zhongle Pavilion or Pavilion of Joy Sharing, when he was the magistrate of Mingzhou Prefecture (now Ningbo, Zhejiang Province). He also wrote poems about the pavilion lauding the idea of sharing joy. In his “Memorial to Yueyang Tower,”Fan Zhongyan (989-1052) expressed his view that as an official one should anticipate the worries of the people and be the first to care, and be the last to enjoy, only after seeing that others were all happy. Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) also voiced a similar sentiment of joy sharing in his “The Old Drunkard Pavilion.”Since then, sharing joy has been a theme in classical Chinese literary creation and also a manifestation of the traditional Chinese spirit of benevolence.
Zhu or benediction is a short essay written to pay tribute to gods and seek their blessing. Meng or a vow of allegiance is made by allies to gods. They both express a wish and a commitment to gods. According to Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties, a zhu should be sincere in tone and plain in wording, without any pomposity or fanfare. A meng, as a vow of allegiance, is intended to let gods know the commitment of rulers to entering into an alliance and sharing weal and woe. Therefore, a meng should be candid and sincere and reinforce solidarity between the allies through a prayer to gods. The success of entering into an alliance, said Liu Xie, depends ultimately on the sincerity of all the parties involved, not on gods. But a beautifully written zhu or meng will help to foster trust in and noble character among the people involved.
DETAILED>>This term refers to an effect that allows lasting satisfaction and rewarding in poetry appreciation, which is a particular sense of beauty offered by poetry. In the Southern Dynasties, poetry critic Zhong Rong （？-518？）proposed in “The Critique of Poetry” that in writing five-character-per-line poems, one should pay special attention to the combination of form and content, so that readers could enjoy a poem with inexhaustible delight. Later, nuanced flavor also came to refer to a kind of taste in literary and artistic creation.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the primordial state of things, unaffected by the various meanings imposed on it by man. The concept of naturalness in philosophy is different from that of nature in the ordinary sense. In daily language, the term refers to the physical world, which is independent of human interference, as opposed to human society. In philosophy, there is also a natural state of man and society. In political philosophy, “naturalness” specifically applies to the natural state enjoyed by ordinary people free from the intervention of government supervision and moral edification. Daoism holds that in governance a monarch should conform to the natural state of the people.
DETAILED>>Everything comes into being by itself; it is not created or generated by heaven, void, or tangible things. The expression “spontaneous generation” rejects the concept of a creator. People have different views about the concrete circumstances of the “spontaneous generation” of things. Some believe that things which are “spontaneously generated” are interrelated and dependent on one another, while some others assert that everything is “spontaneously generated” by itself abruptly, unconnected with others.
DETAILED>>Overcoming oneself means to conquer and control oneself. Everybody has his strengths and weaknesses, and he may succeed or fail in what he does. One’s strengths and skills bring success, whereas one’s weaknesses lead to failure. Therefore, one needs to make constant efforts to improve oneself, overcome one’s weaknesses, transcend one’s limitations, and eventually become a truly capable person. This is not only a prerequisite for overcoming particular difficulties and defeating enemies, but also a lifetime pursuit for a better self. This is true for a person and for a country as well. The aspiration embodied therein is similar to what is expressed in the term “strive continuously to strengthen oneself.”
DETAILED>>Think in terms of self-interest. This concept was proposed by the Daoists and the Legalists during the Warring States Period. Scholars of both schools felt that people’s words and deeds are always based on considerations of their own interests, and that they always try to gain advantages and avoid harm. Ideas that appear to be for the sake of others and actions that care for others actually occur in order to gain benefits for oneself. For those who govern, it is necessary to have a grasp of people’s concerns for their own interests and to use these effectively through meting out rewards and punishments.
DETAILED>>Have trust in one’s self so that one strongly believes in the correctness and validity of one’s thoughts and actions. One who has such a belief will give up neither one’s conviction nor one’s goals. He will neither waver nor submit to others. A strong sense of personal integrity underlies this sense of self-belief, which in turn wins the trust of others. The term expresses a sense of self, and relates closely to the concept “strive continuously to strengthen oneself.”
DETAILED>>The term means acting on one’s own free will without being subject to external restrictions. In ancient China, both Confucians and Daoists longed for freedom both of the mind and in their lives. In modern times, this term has become the Chinese word for “liberty” and “freedom.” As a technical term, it has two meanings. One is citizens’ statutory and law-protected rights not to be interfered in their will and actions, such as freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom of religious belief. The other, philosophically, refers to freedom of people’s understanding of necessity and their transformation of the objective world. Based on a profound understanding of the principles governing the nature and society and aiming to ensure individuals to achieve well-rounded development, freedom is considered one of the core values conducive to a good society.
DETAILED>>The term means to have knowledge and understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses. This is the basis for knowing others and all other things. Further self-improvement and progress stem from this. Exceptional and wise people often demonstrate this quality. The focus is on developing a conscious sense of self, which echoes the ancient Greek axiom “know thyself.”
DETAILED>>The ability to control one’s self includes cultivating one’s mind, controlling one’s behavior, and managing one’s affairs. Politically, it falls into the category of “rule by man,” in which the ruler exercises strict self-discipline and sets an example, so that the people also manage their affairs properly. This leads to positive social governance. In modern times, zizhi (自治) is used as the counterpart of “autonomy” or “self-government,” so it has become a political concept. It means that, within a state, ethnic groups, geographic regions and civil groupings have a certain amount of administrative independence while still following national, government and organizational regulations, e.g., “local autonomy,” and “regional ethnic autonomy.”
DETAILED>>This system was central to life in ancient China; it was a system of principles and measures by which a clan, a state, or society was run, based on bloodline or whether a son was born from the wife or a concubine. The feudal clan system evolved from the patriarchal chiefs system. Taking shape during the Western Zhou Dynasty, this system and the feudal system were mutually dependent and complementary. The feudal clan system had two levels: one was the familial level, where the eldest son by the wife was the first in line to inherit the family’s property and thus enjoyed the greatest authority. Other members of the clan were allotted their status and authority according to their closeness of kinship, ancestry, or seniority. In the families of the emperor, kings, and other nobility, this pattern was extended to the state or national level. It had a decisive impact on the inheritance of the imperial throne and on state politics. The feudal clan system greatly influenced the Chinese way of life and thinking for several thousand years.
DETAILED>>The term zongjiao was first seen in Buddhist classics, where jiao（教）referred to what the Buddha himself had taught, whether in his direct teachings or his wider endeavours to enlighten; zong (宗) on the other hand referred to what the Buddha's disciples had said and was a subdivision of jiao, containing subjective, personal beliefs. When the two are combined the term has two meanings: 1) encompassing the purposes and doctrines of Buddhism overall, and 2) referring to the beliefs of a particular branch or sect that share the same doctrines. Later on, Daoism also began to use the term, and in the modern era, zongjiao has been used to translate into Chinese the word "religion," where people come together through worship to commune with a supernatural, transcendent, and absolute supreme being, to enter a realm of glory, and attain eternal happiness.
DETAILED>>Ancestral temples were built for the spirits of people's deceased ancestors. Tablets bearing the names of the
ancestors were housed in the temples for worship and sacrificial purposes. In the
ancient Chinese temple system, ancestral temples mainly referred to the special
temples where kings, princes and others offered sacrifices to their ancestors.
According to rules of the Zhou Dynasty, a sovereign ruler could have seven temples, a
prince could build five, a minister three, a shi (士 a person at the social
stratum between the aristocracy and the common people) could only have one. A common person was not
allowed to have any temple. If a state or dynasty was defeated and no longer in existence, its ancestral
temples would often be destroyed. Therefore, just like terms such as “rivers and mountains,” or “state power,” “ancestral temples”
was often used as a term to refer to the royal
family, the court or state power. Ancestral temples were a product of the
continuation of ancestral worship and a manifestation of the principle that
family and state share the same structure.
Zongji (总集) is a collection of various authors’ poems and proses (distinct from bieji〔别集〕, a collection of a particular author’s literary works). In terms of content, an anthology could be either comprehensive or limited in selection. Chronically, an anthology can be a general collection spanning written history, or a general collection from one dynasty. In terms of the genre of collected works, it can be divided into collections of a specific genre and collections of various genres. The most representative anthology is Selections of Refined Literature compiled and edited jointly by Xiao Tong (501-
531, Crown Prince Zhaoming of the Liang Dynasty during the Southern Dynasties) and his literary advisors. Selections of Refined Literature consists of more than 700 outstanding literary pieces of various genres from pre-Qin through the early Liang. It does not include any work that belongs to the categories of jing (经 Confucian classics), shi (史 history), or zi (子thoughts of ancient scholars and schools), but does include a small number of prefaces, commentaries, and eulogies from shi. Selections of Refined Literature reflects the literary trend of the time and exerted a far-reaching impact on the
development of Chinese literature in the years to come.
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This genre of writing was used by officials
to report important matters or present personal views to the emperor. Zou (奏) here means “a reminder
to the throne,” i.e., a statement of an administrative matter plus a clear-cut view
on how to handle it. Qi (启) here means
“a candid view on state business.” The former should be prudent, insightful and
plain in style, whereas the latter, functioning as both a memorial and a
petition, should be brief and unassuming in style. Liu Xie (465?-520) of the
Southern Dynasties observed that this kind of writing was prepared for making
an oral presentation to the emperor. It reported an urgent situation, exposed
wrongdoers, expressed one’s views on governance issues, and proposed ways to
handle them. Therefore, unlike a memorial of gratitude or petition, a memorial
to present one’s view to the emperor should be objective, discreet and
succinct, and unaffected by one’s own mood. This observation still holds true
for writing official communications today.
This means respecting and valuing one’s own life as well as that of others. Since each person has only one life to live, he does not easily give up his life and will not take away other people’s lives. He who is in power should respect people’s lives and do his utmost to uphold the people’s legitimate right to life. He must not do anything harmful to people’s life and health. On the other hand, he should not just allow his life to drift along without moral purpose.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a Daoist way of breaking away from the difference and opposition between one’s self and the universe. It comes from the book Zhuangzi, which elaborates its meaning in a dialogue between Confucius (551-479 BC) and Yan Hui (521-481 BC). In Zhuangzi’s (369?-286 BC) view, status and etiquette norms in the human world caused divisions and antagonisms and hence created constraints on people. One should forget status and norms and furthermore forget one’s own physical existence and intellect to cast off the differences between one’s self and the universe and thus be free from the constraints and influence of external factors.
DETAILED>>Poems of this kind depicted frontier scenery as well as fighting along the northern border area and the life of soldiers garrisoned there. These poems described the scenic splendor north of the Great Wall, fierce war scenes, or hardships endured by frontier guards. Some of the works were about soldiers’ agony caused by long separation from families and about their homesickness, but many such poems also extolled their patriotism. Some of the works voiced the longing for reunion of women left at home when husbands and sons went to the frontier. Frontier poems showed the poets’ attitude towards and reflections on war, highlighting the tension between valuing individual lives and the need to respond to call to duty. The most compelling frontier poems were written in the Tang Dynasty. Frontier poems of later generations could not rival the powerful expression of Tang frontier poems.
DETAILED>>"Emptiness" is not absolute nothingness. Rather, it refers to the fact that existence does not last forever. This term was explained in detail by Seng Zhao (384 or 374-414), who opposed the views derived from a prevailing misunderstanding of "original non-being" in the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Commentators' interpretations of the "emptiness as non-substantiality" are mainly approached in two ways: first, things are empty because they are unreal, and so to establish the insubstantiality of all dharmas; second, emptiness itself is not real, and so to differentiate falsehood from absolute nothingness.
DETAILED>>This expression refers to a cognitive state which is completely clear and penetrating. It was proposed by Xunzi (313?-238 BC). He felt that people could understand human relations in daily life through the use of the “mind” (xin心), but the mind was often clouded by various factors. Xunzi advocated lifting the clouds by keeping the mind open, concentrated and tranquil, which would lead to a clear and penetrating understanding of human relations in daily life. Such a cognitive state is that of great clarity and brightness.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the final part of a drama. It contains a requirement as to how a dramatic or operatic performance should end; i.e., a natural and reasonable rather than stiff outcome of the characters and events in a play, making it possible for the audience to experience the pleasure of a complete plot with both calls and echoes, expansion and withdrawal, a start and an end, a cause and an effect, and a transformation from tension to relief and from expectation to satisfaction. In a word, a good conclusion should feature "a happy outcome for all" as Li Yu (1611-1680), the late Ming to early Qing drama theorist, said. This means not only the reunion of a family after a period of separation or the wedding of a loving couple, but also the completion of a play's circuitous structure. The final part of a play is the last step taken to close that circuit and reach a climax.
This concept places importance on the unity of national ideology and law. It was put forward by Dong Zhongshu (179-104 BC) of the Western Han Dynasty as an underlying theme of The Spring and Autumn Annals. In his view, the state needs a uniform legal system, but to achieve such unity, different schools of thought must be unified first. Without a unified ideology, people will not know which one to follow. Dong believed that Confucianism should be the one and only governing ideology for a nation. In his opinion, the unity of law and ideology should be an enduring principle .
This is a term used to describe someone of ideal moral quality. How much one achieves does not determine whether he can be called a great man. The criterion is whether or not a person can know and hold fast to Dao. Given that there are different interpretations of Dao, the specific requirements for a great man are also different. Mencius (372?-289 BC) stresses that a great man should have high aspirations to carry out Dao, adhere to moral integrity, stay upright, and his observation of Dao should not be influenced by external matters (as opposed to his inner world). Yet, another ancient Chinese philosopher Laozi believes that a great man should abandon ostentatious rites and norms, and return to the natural state through non-action.
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This term, first appearing in The Doctrine of the Mean, a section of The Book of Rites, means pursuit of knowledge. This term and the concept of revering the virtuous nature of human beings are important to foster one' s virtue. According to The Doctrine of the Mean, moral cultivation requires both revering the heavenly bestowed virtuous nature of human beings and constant pursuit of knowledge. In the quest of knowledge, one should gain a thorough understanding of the teachings expounded in classics and apply them in daily life. In this way, one will turn these teachings into actual deeds of virtue.
DETAILED>>Fa houwang (法后王), as opposed to fa xianwang (法先王), literally means “to follow the examples of recent kings.” It represents a particular attitude towards history and tradition. Houwang (后王) refers to the contemporary monarchs known for noble virtue and remarkable political achievements. The notion of fa houwang is not only about revering the virtue and accomplishments of the recent rulers, but also about obeying their commands and accepting their actions. In this context, the deeds of the recent kings are considered more legitimate and better adapted to the changing times compared to those of ancient kings, as recorded in historical accounts.
DETAILED>>Fa xianwang (法先王), as opposed to fa houwang (法后王), literally means “to follow the examples of ancient kings.” It represents a particular attitude towards history and tradition. Xianwang (先王) refers to ancient monarchs known for noble virtue and remarkable accomplishments in historical accounts, such as Yao, Shun, and Yu. Different schools of thought recognize different monarchs with their virtue and accomplishments. The idea of fa xianwang is not just about admiring the virtue and accomplishments of ancient kings, but also about following their examples in contemporary politics, as the deeds of the ancient kings serve as a legitimate foundation for government in reality.
DETAILED>>In The Book of Songs, the content is divided into three categories according to style and tune: feng (ballad), ya (court hymn), and song (eulogy). Ballads are music from different regions, mostly folk songs. Court hymns, divided into daya (major hymn) and xiaoya (minor hymn), are songs sung at court banquets or grand ceremonies. They are mostly the works by lettered noblemen. Eulogies are ritual or sacrificial dance music and songs, most of which praise the achievements of ancestors. Court hymns and eulogies are highbrow songs while ballads are lowbrow ones. Therefore, ballads, court hymns, and eulogies not only refer to the styles of The Book of Songs but also indicate highbrow songs. Later on fengya (风雅) generally referred to anything elegant.
DETAILED>>These are the three ways of expression employed in The Book of Songs: a narrative is a direct reference to an object or an event, an analogy metaphorically likens one thing to another, and an association is an impromptu expression of a feeling, a mood or a thought, or using an objective thing as metaphor for sensibilities. Confucian scholars of the Han Dynasty summarized and formulated this concept of narrative, analogy, and association, which later became the basic principle and method in classical Chinese literary creation.
DETAILED>>Poetic songs were developed from the officially collected folk ballads and songs of the Han, Wei and the Six Dynasties. They are characterized by great length, bold expression of feeling, diverse sentence patterns and laxity of the requirements of metrical forms. They followed the classic forms of five characters to a line, seven characters to a line and a mixed pattern in a flexible manner. This genre was established by Southern Dynasty poet Bao Zhao(414?-466) who drew inspiration from folk songs. Tang Dynasty poets Li Bai(701-762) and Bai Juyi(772-846) also wrote poems in such style.
DETAILED>>This is one of the traditional Chinese music notation methods. In the Ming and Qing dynasties it was named Gong-che notation, which was derived from the informal-character notation of the banquet music in the Tang Dynasty and the simplified-character notation in the Song and Yuan dynasties, with ten Chinese characters such as gong (工) and che (尺) as the symbols of the syllable names, in which shang (上), che (尺), gong (工), fan (凡), liu (六), wu (五), and yi (乙) correspond to do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, and si (or ti) in the modern music score respectively. The gong-che notation indicates the key name in front of the music to determine the actual pitch of each note, and uses measure symbols to indicate the dynamic and time value of the note. However, the gong-chenotation records the backbone of the melody and can only retain the main features and framework of the melody. The gong-che notations used in different places and dynasties were not uniform. Therefore, the music was not always very accurate when sung according to the score, and was quite variable. This feature also left creative space for traditional artists when passing on their skills.
DETAILED>>This was a literary school represented by three brothers, namely Yuan Zongdao (1560-1600), Yuan Hongdao (1568-1610) and Yuan Zhongdao (1570-1626), who lived in Gong’an, Hubei Province, in late Ming times. Of the trio, Yuan Hongdao was the most accomplished and renowned. Next was Yuan Zhongdao, who in turn outshined his brother Yuan Zongdao. They advocated giving full expression to one’s true feelings and so opposed some early-Ming men of letters’ soulless emulation of ancient literature. They also advocated genuine interest or concern as the criterion for literary criticism, stating that writing should flow forth from one’s heart and not be constrained by particular regulations and formulae. Putting their efforts mainly in prose and poetry, they paid particular attention to writing in a leisurely and carefree mood. The Gong’an School accepted and appreciated folk literature and stressed the need for writers to draw sustenance from vernacular literature. This attitude reflected to some degree the aesthetic tastes of the newly-emerging urban middle class during the mid-Ming period.
DETAILED>>These are terms that were traditionally used in painting and calligraphy theory and literary criticism to refer specifically to a vigorous and forceful manner or style of execution in combination with softer, more feminine touches. In physiognomy, which was popular during the Qin and Han period, gu (骨) referred to the human frame and rou (肉), the skin and flesh. By the Late Han, Wei and the Six Dynasties, the term came to be employed in literary criticism as well. In the field of painting and calligraphy, “bones” were virile and energetic strokes whereas “flesh” was the heavy use of ink or color to create an effect of elegant plumpness. In literary writing, “bones” meant a sturdy overall structure, and “flesh,” any appropriate rhetorical or formal means employed to fill it out. Bones and flesh, when mentioned together, refer metaphorically to the relation between the framework (i.e., the moral message and structural features) and the nuanced aspects of expression of a literary work. They also imply a union between the essential idea and sentiment of a literary work and its formal beauty.
These are written statements appended to each hexagram and each line within hexagrams. "Hexagram texts", which came from divination records, were later compiled and attached individually to each of the 64 hexagrams and each line within the hexagrams. The texts generally fall into two categories: one indicating auspicious or inauspicious events, and the other consisting of narratives. These texts recorded many aspects of social life in ancient China and reflected early understanding ancient people had about god, spirits, and the world.
DETAILED>>Yuefu (乐府) poems were written in the Han Dynasty. Originally, yuefu was a government office set up by the imperial court to train musicians, collect folk songs and ballads, compose music, and match musical instruments to it. It later came to refer to folk songs and ballads collected, matched with music, and played by court musicians. Poems of this style represented a new creation of ancient folk songs and ballads in the years after The Book of Songs was compiled, and equaled The Book of Songs and Odes of Chu in importance. About 50 to 60 yuefu poems have been handed down to this day. They truthfully depicted various aspects of society at the time and revealed genuine emotions, thus creating a literary tradition reflecting ordinary people’s sentiments. In particular, yuefu poems were noted for their vivid depiction of women’s life. All poems that could be chanted or were written with yuefu themes were collectively called yuefu poems in later times.
DETAILED>>The Haofang School / The Bold and Unconstrained School
This is one of the two ci (词) lyric schools of the Song Dynasty, which mainly dealt with major affairs of the nation and expresses noble aspirations. It featured broad vision and bold expression, often employing the methods of prose poetry and uninhibited by metric stereotypes. The first poet who used the term “bold and unconstrained” was Su Shi （1037-1101）who, together with Xin Qiji（1140-1207）, was widely acclaimed by Southern Song critics as the leading poets of this school. Northern Song writer Fan Zhongyan（989-1052） created this school with his ci lyric, A Fisherman's Song, which grew into a major poetic style thanks mainly to Su Shi's contribution. After the Central Plains fell to the Jin forces, the Song court fled south of the Yangtze River and was too weak to recover the lost territory. Many ci poets, led by Xin Qiji and supported by other prominent poets such as Chen Yuyi (1090-1139), Ye Mengde (1077-1148), Zhu Dunru (1081-1159), Zhang Yuangan (1091-1170?), Zhang Xiaoxiang (1132-1170), Lu You (1125-1210), Chen Liang (1143-1194), and Liu Guo (1154-1206), expressed their longing to return to the north in verses of a stirring style. They voiced their patriotic sentiments and identified their own fate with that of the whole nation. They thus enriched ci lyrics’ ways of expression and greatly lifted its status in the history of literature. Although poets of this school wrote in the bold and unconstrained style, they occasionally wrote graceful and subtle ci poems. And some of their works contained too many commentaries and allusions, were careless about the use of metric schemes, and read more like prose than poetry.
DETAILED>>The philosopher Hui Shi’s (370?-310? BC) approach to commonality and difference among things was to unite them, regarding commonalities and differences as relative. There are bound to be small or great similarities and differences between any two concrete things. If we look at them from the point of view of commonality, all things have something in common, so they can be said to be similar. If we look at them from the point of view of difference, no two things are completely the same, so they are all different. Whether things are in common or different depends on the perspective from which we look at them. This led Hui Shi to determine that commonalities and differences are not separate; that is, they are unified.
DETAILED>>Make harmony a top priority. He (和) indicates congruity and appropriateness. It is a state of congenial co-existence on the basis of due respect for differences and diversity. At first, this phrase referred to the role of li (礼rites / social norms) which is to keep citizens of distinct social status co-existing in a harmonious way, with everybody having his or her own place and staying there contentedly for mutual benefits, resulting in a “harmonious yet diverse” society. It is an important moral concept of the Confucian school in managing inter-personal relations. The term later evolved to refer in general to harmonious, congenial, peaceful, and agreeable relationships among people, groups, and states. It epitomizes the “civil” nature of the Chinese people, who oppose violent conflicts and aspire for peace and harmony.
DETAILED>>Such inscriptions include oracles and events recorded on bones or tortoise shells of the Shang and Zhou dynasties. They are also known as “script chiseled out with a knife,” “oracles on bones or tortoise shells,” or “script from Yin ruins.” They are the earliest known characters of ancient China dated more than 3,000 years ago. Inscriptions on bones or tortoise shells were first uncovered from among Yin ruins at Xiaotun Village in Anyang in Henan Province, generally believed to have first been discovered in 1899 by Wang Yirong (1845-1900), a late Qing epigrapher. In the Shang and Zhou dynasties, royal families and noblemen would consult heaven about anything ranging from state business to trivial affairs in daily life, such as sacrificial rituals, weather, harvesting, war, hunting, illness, and giving birth. It was the answers they thus elicited that determined what course of action to take. Divination was an important part of a country’s governance; the bones and tortoise shells with characters inscribed on them would be stored away as state archives. So far, more than 100,000 bones and tortoise shells have been unearthed, about 4,500 characters have been tallied, and of these, about 1,700 have been understood and interpreted. Characters on bones and tortoise shells have become increasingly systemized, with the six ways of forming Chinese characters (namely, pictographs, self-explanatory characters, associative compounds, pictophonetic characters, mutually explanatory characters, and phonetic loan characters) all reflected in them and a large number of pictophonetic characters (or phonograms) that had merged. Oracles inscribed on bones and tortoise shells are also valuable firsthand material for studying the history of the Shang and Zhou dynasties.
DETAILED>>Jing (经),which means the constant, and quan (权), which means the temporary, are terms used in the historical discourse of Chinese philosophy referring to a pair of philosophical concepts concerning the permanent and temporarily changing aspects of dao. The constant is the normal manifestation of human relations and daily life. It is thus the normal way that should be observed. It has normative functions and significance. The temporary means a change of the function of dao to suit circumstances or to meet needs of the day. In special circumstances, to follow the constant may result in deviation from dao. When this happens, a flexible way, that is, the temporary, may be adopted. The temporary seems to deviate from dao, but it actually conforms to requirements of dao in a flexible manner. The application of the constant or the temporary in different circumstances is determined by one’s keen understanding and mastery of dao.
DETAILED>>This was a school of literary creation in the late Ming Dynasty represented by Zhong Xing (1574-1624) and Tan Yuanchun (1586-1637), who were both natives of Jingling (today’s Tianmen, Hubei Province). It was also known as the Zhong-Tan School. Like members of the Gong’an School of Literary Writing, the Jingling School valued the showing of a writer’s true feelings and character and opposed stubborn emulation of ancient literature. However, they regarded works of the Gong’an School represented by Yuan Hongdao (1568-1610) as slangy and shallow. They advocated a serene and solitary style, arguing that literary creation should express the “inner self.” But in fact, such an “inner self” pursues only novelty, abstruseness, and aloofness from ordinary mortals. The Jingling School paid excessive attention to wording, trying to create an atmosphere of solitude and profundity. Members of the school contributed to the resistance of stubborn emulation of ancient literature and the emergence of many refined, informal essays. However, the limitation of subject matter and abstruseness of language restrained their further development.
DETAILED>>When wealth is equal and its distribution is fair, people will not feel there is poverty. This was a concept of political governance propounded by Confucius (551-479 BC). Jun (均) means fair and balanced, with everyone receiving a share. Pin (贫poor), in contrast with fu (富rich), means receiving less. In Confucius’ view, whether a person is rich or poor is not determined only by the absolute value of his wealth; it is determined rather by its relative value or the gap between the differences in income. If the gap is excessively large, some will feel poor even if the absolute value of their wealth is considerable; on the other hand, if the gap is not large, people will not feel poor even if the absolute value of their wealth is low. The basic spirit of this view is that those who govern should not one-sidedly pursue an increase in total wealth. Rather, they should prioritize fairness, ensure reasonable distribution and maintain wealth equality, so as to prevent the emergence of a large gulf between rich and poor, and to avoid worsening social conflicts.
DETAILED>>The separation of an object’s hardness from its whiteness is a proposition advanced by Gongsunlongzi（320？-250 BC）. Looking at a hard and white stone, one can only see its whiteness but not its hardness; while touching the stone with one’s hand, one can only feel its hardness but not that it is white. Hardness and whiteness are separate. They do not manifest themselves at the same time: thus, a white stone that is hard cannot be called a hard and white stone. Gongsunlongzi used this example to express his understanding of the properties of things. These properties are independent of each other and cannot simultaneously be joined in the same thing.
DETAILED>>The late Ming and early Qing drama theorist Li Yu (1611-1680) used this term to suggest that a drama should revolve around main characters and events. He said that when an ancient writer wrote an essay, he would always develop a main theme first. This main theme was what he wanted to write about. A drama, too, should unfold around a key character and a key event, namely, the main theme of the drama, which would spur plot development and interaction between characters. The key event was the one which, of all events in the drama, played a central role in developing the plot and which linked together all plots elements. As an example, Li Yu said the main character in Romance of the Western Chamber was Zhang Junrui, whom the White Horse General rescued and around whom all the other characters and events revolved. Main characters and main events were equally important. The authors of many legendary dramas knew how to create a main character but did not know how to set up a main event. As a result, their works looked like broken strings of pearls or houses without pillars. Establishing a main theme was very important to the structure of a drama.
Originally published in the Jin (金) Dynasty as a rhyming book for the imperial examinations, this was the basis for the rhymes of poems written by literati at that time and afterwards. It was first engraved and published in Pingshui (now Linfen, Shanxi Province), hence the name. (Another theory is that it was named after one of the publishers, Liu Yuan, who was born in Pingshui, Jiangbei, now unknown). Rhyme is an important artistic feature of poetry. From ancient times to the Sui Dynasty, poetry rhymed according to the natural laws of rhyme. During the Sui Dynasty, when China was reunified and northern and southern cultures were fused, Lu Fayan (562-?) and others compiled a book called Qieyun (qie is a traditional method of marking pronunciation, yun means “rhyming system”), which represented a compromise between the northern and southern official dialects. In the Tang Dynasty, poetry was among the subjects of the imperial examinations, and books like Qieyun became the natural rhyme standard for poetry. In the Northern Song Dynasty, The Song Dynasty’s Enlarged Edition of Qieyun and Simplifed Rhymes of the Ministry of Rites were compiled and issued as official rhymes on the basis of Qieyun. A total of 206 rhymes were set out in these two works, though only about a hundred were actually used in the poetry of the Tang and Song dynasties. During the Jin Dynasty when a system of recruiting officials on the merit of their poetry was used, its official rhymes were based on the rhyme books of the Northern Song Dynasty, with some amalgamations adopted. In this context, during the coexistence of the Jin and Southern Song dynasties, Wang Wenyu of the Jin Dynasty published his Newly Revised Simplified Rhymes of the Ministry of Rites with 106 rhymes, and Liu Yuan of the Song Dynasty published his New Rhymes of the Ministry of Rites in the Renzi Year (1252) with 107 rhymes. The rhymes of these two books were essentially the same. Although the original books are now lost, the rhyming system established by them, namely pingshui rhyming system, is a direct inheritance from the Tang and Northern Song dynasties, and is more concise and convenient to learn and use. It became an important basis for rhyming poems written in the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties and remains useful even today.
DETAILED>>To search for and retrieve one’s lost heart is a way to cultivate one’s morality propounded by Mencius(372?-289 BC). In his view everyone was born with a benevolent heart, which meant the “four initiators” of benevolence, righteousness, rites and social norms, and wisdom. These are virtues conferred by Heaven and the sources of human kindness. However, people may be influenced by external factors or the environment when growing up. In that case, their innate goodness may be weakened or obscured and hence they may act or speak in contrary to moral principles. Therefore, when cultivating one’s moral character, one must find and recover one’s innate good heart.
DETAILED>>Tathāgatagarbha refers to the potential to realize the Buddhahood inherent in all sentient beings. As an ontological foundation for Buddhahood, this potential is described in related sutras as the submerged essence of consciousness possessed by all sentient beings. It is sometimes confused with ālāyavijñāna, because both of them, pure and perfect, provide bases for freedom. From the late Wei and Jin dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasty, the study of “the dependent origination of tathāgatagarbha” became popular. It suggests that the tathāgatagarbha heart of all sentient beings opens two gates: the gate of tathāta (suchness) and the gate of generation and destruction. The former refers to the noumenon of tranquility, while the latter denotes the appearance caused by the functioning of ālāyavijñāna. This explains the reason why the noumenon of tranquility is capable of arising and being extinguished.
DETAILED>>This term refers to three great accomplishments that are forever remembered and eulogized by the people. The first and foremost is to set a high moral standard for people of later generations to follow. The second is to perform meritorious deeds, bringing good to the country and the people and rooting out evils. The third is to put forth noble ideas or establish them as a way of thinking through writing them down. According to Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, these great accomplishments were proposed by Shusun Bao from the State of Lu. In Shusun’s opinion, private benefits that individuals or families have, such as wealth, official ranking, and social status, will disappear with the passage of time. Only the great accomplishments that benefit the country and the people, including setting out high moral standards, performing great deeds, and inseminating noble ideas, can be passed on for eternity. These three great accomplishments have been the lifelong pursuit of ancient Chinese literati and people of noble aspirations.
DETAILED>>Landscape poetry, as the name suggests, describes the beauty and charm of natural scenery, and landscape poets express their emotions through extolling the enchanting scenery. Landscape poetry is characterized by vivid description of sights with rich and refreshing language. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, scholars who had fled war-torn homes in the north sought solace and escape in nature in the south, and this found expression in poetic description of mountain and river scenes. Xie Lingyun (385-433), a great poet of the late
This term was first used by the late Ming and early Qing drama theorist Li Yu (1611-1680) in his Occasional Notes with Leisure Motions. It means that in dramatic creation, one should maintain a good balance between fiction and non-fiction in characterization and plot development. According to Li, material for dramatic creation could be ancient or current, could be based on what one heard from others or what actually happened. A piece of dramatic creation was just like a fable. As long as it had a good message to convey, whether its plot was real or not did not matter much. Nonetheless, a writer of legendary drama should strike a balance between reality and fiction, suiting characterization and plot development to people’s natural way of thinking. The effort to balance fiction and reality acknowledges the need of artistic creation, taking reason and human feelings as the criterion judging artistic reality; and it highlights the difference between artistic reality and mundane reality. This view represents a proper understanding of laws governing literary creation.
A poem expresses aspirations in one’s heart. Zhi (志) here means the author’s aspirations, emotions, and thoughts. The concept of “poetry expressing aspirations,” first seen in the Confucian classic The Book of History, was hailed by Zhu Ziqing as the “manifesto” of Chinese poetry. Enriched by poetry critics through the generations, it was later established as a basic concept in Chinese literary criticism.
DETAILED>>Poems originate from the poet’s heart-felt feelings. Lu Ji （261-303）of the Western Jin Dynasty said in “The Art of Writing” that a poet must have a surge of feeling deep in his heart before he could create a poem. This view, complementing the concept of “poetry expressing aspirations,” stresses the lyrical and aesthetic nature of literary works and echoes the evolution of literary tastes during the Wei and Jin dynasties. “Poetry springing from emotions” represents another viewpoint on the nature of poetry and literature in ancient China.
DETAILED>>This refers to a style of painting in which ink shades are manipulated through dilution, and color use is minimal. It is also known as traditional Chinese or typically Chinese painting. The materials used include ink and water, a painting brush, and rice paper. Through adjusting the proportion of water to ink, the final image varies between light and dark, wet and dry, and thick and thin ink, thus producing varying degrees of color intensity. An ink wash painting normally consists of only ink and water, or of black and white. A more refined ink wash painting, on the other hand, may also feature an elaborate style of painting with flowers and birds in splendid hues, also known as "colored ink wash painting." On the whole, Chinese ink wash painting is impressionistic when depicting distant objects, but realistic about nearby ones. Through the skillful manipulation of color contrasts and the production of artistic ambience, the painter brings forth the value of a painting's "spiritual liveliness."
This refers to a state of mind that is pure and proper with no depraved or evil thoughts. This is a well-known critique made by Confucius (551-479 BC) on The Book of Songs, a collection of more than 300 poems. In his opinion, these poems may be summarized as pure and proper in thoughts with no depravity, keeping with the beauty of balanced harmony. This concept has always been held in high respect among scholars over the years because of the important position in history The Book of Songs. It is often used to judge and enjoyed by both Confucius and critique writers and writings, although some of the poems in The Book of Songs are not fully up to the standard of “no depraved thoughts” due to their unbridled feelings and candidness.
Poetic drama of the Song Dynasty refers to a combination of comic shows, song and dance, and variety shows. It is an early form of traditional Chinese drama based on Canjunxi (comic dialogical plays of the Tang Dynasty) and drawing elements from song and dance plus other forms of folk art. It is mainly jocular and satirical. Its performance is divided into two sections. The first is a warming-up show whereas the second section is the “real thing.” Sometimes, skits will be added to a regular show to enhance the fun. Each poetic drama has four or five characters, with one of them being the main singer who narrates events by singing major arias while the others do the spoken parts, throw in impromptu remarks for comic relief, or simply sing and dance. Dramatic performances were very popular in the Northern Song Period, especially in Kaifeng and Luoyang. Throughout the Northern and Southern Song dynasties, poetic drama kept on growing and reached a new height, further dividing roles, varying postures and making plots more intricate. Poetic drama of the Song Dynasty predated that of the Yuan Dynasty. Its artistic forms and techniques directly influenced later forms of drama.
This term refers to a poetic style popular for about 30 years from the early to mid-Western Jin Dynasty, particularly in the Taikang era (280–289) during the reign of Emperor Wu. Among the poets of this tradition were Zuo Si (250?-305?), Pan Yue (247-300), and Lu Ji (261-303). Taikang poets focused excessively on the use of rhetorical description, verbal parallelism, and refined poetic techniques, representing an abrupt departure from the Jian’an （196-220）poetry with its passion, boldness, and vitality. Standing out among the Taikang poets was Zuo Si, who used plain language, but whose works had substance and were imbued with passion and strength.
DETAILED>>A genre created by Tao Yuanming (365 or 372 or 376-427) of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, idyllic poetry depicts rural life and scenery. Taking country life as his favored theme, Tao Yuanming used plain language to portray rural scenes. His poems were unpretentious, refreshing, and natural, thus creating a far-reaching aesthetic conception and a lasting charm. Idyllic poetry represented a new stage in classical Chinese poetry and shaped poetic development in the Six Dynasties period and beyond.
DETAILED>>The Tong-Guang School of poetry, which first emerged during the reigns of the Tongzhi (1862-1874) and Guangxu (1875-1908) emperors of late Qing, continued to flourish in the early years of the Republic of China early in the 20th century. It was thus named by combining the initial characters of the two emperors’ reign titles. Chen Sanli (1852-1937), Shen Zengzhi (1850-1922), Chen Yan (1856-1937) and Zheng Xiaoxu (1860-1938) were representative figures of this school. They valued Song ci poetry, a kind of lyric classical Chinese poetry using a poetic meter based upon certain patterns of fixed-rhythm formal types. Their aim was to blend “the poetry of a poet” with “the poetry of a scholar,” merging a poet’s aspirations, feelings, academic learning and moral accomplishment into an integral whole. They incorporated commentaries into their poems and carefully weighed their words. Stylistically, they pursued a vigorous brevity and straightforwardness, trying to blaze "a way through desolate wilderness." Due to regional and stylistic differences, this school of poetic creation is further divided into the Fujian, Zhejiang and Jiangxi branches.
This school of writing represented the Qing Dynasty’s most influential style of classical Chinese writing. Its representative figures were all natives of Tongcheng, Anhui Province, hence the name. It was formed during the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1662-1722) and reached its height during the reigns of Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795) and Emperor Jiaqing (1796-1820). Its founder, Fang Bao (1668-1749), believed that men of letters should follow the style of writing of the neo-Confucian moralists Cheng Hao (1032-1085), Cheng Yi (1033-1107), and Zhu Xi (1130-1200), and that of great men of letters like Han Yu (768-824) and Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072). This set the tone for this school of writing. Among its prominent figures were Dai Mingshi (1653-1713), Liu Dakui (1698-1779), Yao Nai (1732-1815), Mei Zengliang (1786-1856), Fang Dongshu (1772-1853), and Wu Rulun (1840-1903). Writers of this school emphasized that writings should convey moral ideals and be refined and well-laid out in form. Such a style of writing was based on Fang Bao’s “guidelines for writing good prose,” Yao Nai’s stress on “conveying righteous messages, facts and evidence, and rhetoric and technique,” and Liu Dakui’s theory about “a piece of writing and its author’s charm.” The Tongcheng School of Writing inherited Chinese scholars’ tradition of writing in classical Chinese and offered a theoretical summary about prose writing. It enjoyed high prestige until the Revolution in the Literati Circle led by Liang Qichao (1873-1929), when it came under attack as a symbol of conservatism.
This term means that a writer should not fall into old patterns when writing a drama. He should not only avoid stereotypes of previous works but also resist attempts to do so in his own creations. The term was proposed by late Ming to early Qing drama theorist Li Yu (1611-1680) in his Occasional Notes with Leisure Motions. In his view, dramatic creations should be original in both content and wording, and previous works should not be blindly followed. Only such works deserve to be called legendary stories. This call to avoid stereotypes was made to encourage creativity and variety in artistic pursuit to delight the audience.
DETAILED>>As one of the two ci (词) lyric schools of the Song Dynasty, the graceful and restrained school mainly dealt with romantic love or parting sorrow. It featured sentimental and nuanced expression of one’s feelings, graceful and melodious metric patterning, and mellow and subtle use of language. Ci lyrics of this school emerged early, and many poets were famed for writing this style of ci, especially Wen Tingyun (?-866) and Li Yu (937-978) of the Five Dynasties period, Liu Yong (987?-1053?), Yan Shu (991-1055), Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), Yan Jidao (1038-1110), Qin Guan (1049-1100), He Zhu (1052-1125), Zhou Bangyan (1056-1121), and Li Qingzhao (1084-1151?) of the Northern Song Dynasty, as well as Jiang Kui (1155?-1209), Wu Wenying (1212?-1272?), and Zhang Yan (1248-1314?) of the Southern Song Dynasty. The graceful and restrained school occupied a dominant position in terms of both quantity and quality in over one thousand years of poetry’s development. It should be mentioned that poets of this school also cared deeply about the fate of the nation, but they tended to express their concerns in a personal and sentimental way, often through depicting scenery. Therefore, their poems should not be regarded as lacking of vigor and energy.
DETAILED>>This refers to paintings produced by ancient Chinese scholars and writers, as distinguished from those by craftsmen or court-hired artists. It is a sub-category of traditional Chinese painting, also known as "scholarly painting," "southern school painting," or simply "southern painting." Although Su Shi (1037-1101), a renowned Song Dynasty poet, first advanced this idea, Ming Dynasty painter and calligrapher Dong Qichang (1555-1636) regarded the Tang Dynasty poet Wang Wei (701?-761) as the true pioneer of literati painting. Its authors typically drew inspiration from scenery and image of mountains, rivers, trees, flowers, and birds, focusing on expressing their subjective perceptions and inner selves. Their works sometimes showed resentment and discontent with certain social phenomena. Stressing skillful use of brush and ink, literati painting transcended the restraints of form and technique, imbuing itself with real taste and verve.
DETAILED>>This poetic style pursued rhetorical beauty and symmetrical structure. In the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty, poets such as
This term, first coined by Li Yu (1611-1680), refers to the last scene of the first half of a play. It includes the requirement for and techniques of concluding the first half of the play. Besides the structural completeness of this section, all the relevant characters and events should have appeared by now or been duly introduced, and no ongoing event should be interrupted without a proper reason. Meanwhile, main conflicts should have unfolded, leaving clues to be uncovered later and keeping the audience in suspense. A serial drama, performed in multiple installments, as well as extra long folklore, often use this withdrawal technique to temporarily satisfy the audience's curiosity or keep them guessing what is to come next.
The term means what is formless or has no formal substance yet. It generally indicates the basis of physical things. The term “what is above form” comes from The Book of Changes and is used as the opposite of “what is under form.” “Form” indicates physical shape. “What is above form” refers to the state before a physical shape emerges, namely, formlessness. That which is formless is called “dao.”
DETAILED>>The term means what has a form or what has a formal substance. It generally indicates existing and concrete things. The term “what is under form” comes from The Book of Changes. It is used as the opposite of “what is above form.”“Form” indicates physical shape. “What is under form” refers to the state after a physical shape has emerged, namely, physical existence. That which has a form is called “an object.” What is under form takes what is above form as the basis of its existence.
DETAILED>>Human nature may be categorized as having three levels. This is a view of human nature held by ancient Chinese people. According to this theory, different people have different inherent natures, which can be divided into upper, middle and lower levels. People of the upper level have a good nature. People of the lower level have an evil nature. The nature of those in the middle level is either devoid of the distinction between good and evil, or is a mixture of good and evil. Some believe that human nature is inborn, particularly in those of the upper and lower levels, and is unchangeable. Others think that education can change human nature, allowing people to advance to the next level.
DETAILED>>Icchantika literally means one who desires. It refers to a person who is destitute of good conditions that lead to favorable results, such as awakening and liberation. Hence, it is also glossed as one deprived of merits. The major doctrinal debate over this concept is whether all sentient beings, including icchantikas, are capable of achieving the Buddhahood. In the view of the Vijñaptimātra School (alias the Mind-only School), for example, icchantikas are devoid of proper conditions in nature, therefore would never achieve the final goal. Whereas, in Tathāgatagarbha and Avataṃsaka traditions, all sentient beings are born with the nature of a Buddha, which only anticipates to manifest (at some point). Generally speaking, the former standpoint takes icchantika as innate, while the latter understands it as a temporary status.
DETAILED>>Recluse poetry refers to poems written by literary figures who retreated to the remote mountains or countryside and expressed their sentiments through depicting this kind of life. Some Chinese scholars in the old days, having disdain for taking official position or were dissatisfied with political reality of the day, chose to live in seclusion in mountains and forests or in the countryside. They expressed their pursuit of a state of mind that transcended the worldly through depicting images of mountains, rivers, and other natural scenes. Tao Yuanming (365 or 372 or 376-427) is regarded as the forerunner of this genre. Inspired by his recluse lifestyle, many learned men in the post-Tang and Song period also sought solace and peace of mind in the mountains and countryside, thus giving rise to recluse poetry.
DETAILED>>Poetry on history refers to poems written to convey a poet’s sentiments by reflecting on historical events or historical figures. A poem on history touched on historical events and expressed the poet’s historical insight as well as his emotional attachment to history. Such poems recounted, relived, revived, interpreted, or chanted about history. Some poets used historical figures or events as titles for such poems.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the poetic style most popular during the rule of Emperor Xianzong (806-820) of the Tang Dynasty under the reign title of Yuanhe. It can be understood either broadly or narrowly. In a broad sense, the Yuanhe style of poetry refers to all new forms of verse prevalent from the Yuanhe era onward, created by famed Yuanhe-era writers such as Han Yu (768-824), Yuan Zhen (779-831), Bai Juyi (772-846), and Zhang Ji (767?-830?). In a narrow sense, it refers to lengthy regulated verse and shorter poems of mixed metrical schemes in poetic composition of the works of Yuan Zhen and Bai Juyi. Both poets paid careful attention to the narrative function of poetry. For example, “A Song of the Lianchang Palace,” “A Song of Unending Sorrow,” and “A Song of the Pipa Player” are all representative of lengthy narrative poetry. They also pursued a more popular style of poetry, using vernacular language which was intelligible and easy to remember for ordinary readers. Moreover, they tried to combine poetry and music, making their works rhythmically beautiful and harmonious, thus suitable for chanting or singing.
DETAILED>>Zaju, a unique dramatic genre of the Yuan Dynasty, grew out of the northern zaju of the earlier Song Dynasty. Originally drawing on popular local performing styles of the north, it later absorbed zhugongdiao, a kind of song-speech drama with mixed modes of musical tunes, as well as scores / scripts performed in brothels by courtesans of the Jin Dynasty. Well-known playwrights like Guan Hanqing in the early Yuan period refined and formalized these various styles into this unique dramatic genre. Zaju is made up of four acts, each with sets of songs starting from the same gongdiao note, and sung by the principal female or male performers. The gongdiao note changes with each act. The plots are complete and well-constructed, while the lively and interesting characters rely on a rich repertoire of dramatic gestures and expressions. Dadu, capital of the Yuan Dynasty, was a prosperous center of economic activity where scholars and performers mingled well, which encouraged the rapid growth of the zaju genre. However, the style declined together with the Yuan Dynasty and by the following Ming Dynasty, it had been replaced by other operatic and performing genres.
The term refers to the literary style of the final years of the State of Wei in the Three Kingdoms period. It emerged in the Zhengshi era (240–249) under the reign of Cao Fang（232-274）, also known as Prince Qi of Wei. Facing the harsh prevailing political conditions, literary figures of the era viewed life and the world in a broader and philosophical context, and profound and rational analysis as well as penetrating depiction of human tragedies were underlying features of their writings. Reverence for Laozi and Zhuangzi was a key feature of this literary style, with poetry, in particular, being abstruse and philosophical in terms of message. The Zhengshi style had two schools. One was represented by He Yan (?-249) and Wang Bi (226-
The term refers to a form of theatrical performance combining song and speech popular in the Jin and Yuan periods. The drama is composed of sets of songs. Each set of songs is composed of the same mode of music, or gongdiao. During the performance, one set of songs is followed by another set of songs. Between them, the performer adds spoken narrative to explain the story and string the plot together. Sometimes single ditties are added. The genre had a marked influence on the development of Yuan zaju or opera. The zhugongdiao version of Romance of the Western Chamber by Dong Jieyuan is the most intact extant zhugongdiao drama, and represents the best of Jin Dynasty opera.
DETAILED>>This term refers both to the theories of the diverse group of scholars from the late Spring and Autumn Period to the early Western Han Dynasty, as well as the study of these theories. During those years, scholars engaged in free and in-depth reflection on the collapse of the social order and societal values and came up with diverse theoretical propositions. All of these theories are known as "the study of A Hundred Schools of Thought." The study of A Hundred School of Thought had far-reaching influence on later generations, who researched and elucidated theories of the schools and developed them further. This further development of A Hundred Schools of Thought is also covered by the study of A Hundred School of Thought.
DETAILED>>This phrase, which first appears in The Doctrine of the Golden Mean, a section of The Book of Rites, refers to the need to revere the virtuous nature bestowed on human beings by heaven. Together with quest for knowledge, it constitutes an ethical standard. According to The Doctrine of the Golden Mean, everyone has a heavenly bestowed virtuous nature. Scholars of later generations developed this notion further, suggesting that this inherent nature is actually a manifestation of the heavenly law in human nature. People should revere and fully express their inherent virtuous nature so as to act in keeping with the heavenly law and realize their full virtue.
An army in danger and filled with indignation will certainly be victorious. Ai (哀) here means both pain and anger. These emotions can unite an army and give it extraordinary courage which is very often the deciding factor in battle. In the same way, the side that fights with passion to resist wrongdoing and aggression is filled with justified indignation. Any army fighting a just war is brave and invincible. This concept put emphasis on courage and justice.
DETAILED>>Depicting sorrowful scenery to express happiness is a technique which integrates sentiment and scenery and indirectly expresses sentiment through describing scenery. Although it is quite common to express sadness through joyful scenes, artists rarely describe sorrowful scenery to express joy. Thus, we can better understand the latter technique by comparing it with the former. Both are techniques of expressing sentiment implicitly by describing scenery. Sentiment and scenery set each other off beautifully and are well integrated, thus giving works an aesthetic elegance and a unique and lingering charm.
DETAILED>>This term holds that all expressions of grief and joy should be kept under the restraint of propriety. It means that artists should not be extreme when giving vent to their feelings. They should start off with feelings but end in self-discipline. The term applies to both the philosophical field and artistic creation. What it accentuates is the golden mean, a Confucian term advocating impartiality, reconciliation, and compromise, with propriety as its overriding principle. If an artist obeys the golden mean, whether he writes an essay or a poem or paints a picture, his work will naturally show the beauty of equilibrium and highlight the gentleness and honesty of the Confucian doctrine.
DETAILED>>Originally, the concept denoted that kings, princes, and other rulers should love their kingdoms and their people the same way they did their own families. This is because in ancient China, family and state were considered same in structure. Later on, this concept became a moral value cherished by all patriotic people. It means that all those who love their motherland are intimately bound together as if they were from the same family, so they should love their country and its people in the same way they love their families. Loving one's country is a profound and enduring tradition of the Chinese nation. It is at the core of the spirit of the Chinese nation, and it is a firm conviction of all Chinese, giving them a shared sense of belonging.
DETAILED>>A state which takes good care of its people is one with true power. A ruler will be trusted and supported by the people, and the state under such a ruler will be a solid stronghold only when the policies and measures made and implemented meet the people’s requirements and represent the people’s fundamental interests. This is a new theme derived from the concept of “loving the people,” which is the fundamental driving force of a state’s becoming strong and prosperous. It is also an extension and development of the concepts of “the people are the foundation of a state,” and “a benevolent person loves others.”
Being friendly and caring for others is most important. Ancient Chinese believed that human beings are most precious things in the world, so benevolent people care for others. When it comes to governing a country, a ruler’s love for others should be transformed into love for the people. People are the most fundamental components of a state whose stability and security depend on its people. Therefore, a ruler should consider it his top priority to have love for his people, to be considerate to his people, to always make things easier for his people and follow his people’s will. Policies should be made in the interest of the people, and so should laws and institutions. This is not only what a benevolent government that Confucianism advocates is all about, it is also the basic concept on which ancient legalists made policies and laws for running a country. It epitomizes Chinese people’s humanitarian sentiments.
DETAILED>>Love of others must follow the rules of moral conduct, and not be unprincipled, selfish or indulgent. De(德) here refers to moral behavior and consciousness, and is the foundation for upholding proper social order. Loving the people is on a personal emotional level, while morality is a set of commonly accepted rules of social conduct. If not grounded in morality, loving the people will go against the common social norms, and harm the integrity of both giver and receiver. The term expresses a spirit of respect for morality, social order, and common good.
DETAILED>>Live a stable life and work happily. Anju (安居) literally means a secure house and by extension living a happy life. Leye (乐业) means enjoying one's work. Together they refer to the general state of good governance, with peace prevailing and everyone in their proper place, satisfied with work and content with life. It is the longing of the common people as well as the goal of good governance. It is a people-oriented political aspiration centering on securing people's livelihood.
DETAILED>>When leading a poor life, one should still stick to moral principles. Confucius (551-479 BC) and Confucian scholars believe that it is not for fame and wealth that one should observe moral principles. Rather, such observance comes from one’s heart and represents his lifetime pursuit. So those who are guided by high moral standards will never seek wealth and fame at the expense of justice, and they can live up to such standards even when they live in poverty.
DETAILED>>One should face reality calmly and follow its natural course. This is an attitude to life espoused by the ancient philosopher Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC). He believed that all things undergo spontaneous transformations independent of man’s will and that humans should face the changes of life and death calmly. However, this does not mean passivity or resignation. It means that people should look upon
life with detachment, be at ease with changes and follow life’s natural path. This is an extension of Laozi’s principle that “Dao operates naturally.”
This term means feeling attached to the native land and reluctant to move to another place. This was a widespread way of thinking and sentiment among the common people in a traditional agricultural society. In essence, it is because they depended on the land to make a living, since the land served as their basic resource for production and livelihood. Also, they were loath to leave the burial place of their ancestors as well as their family and relations. In the Chinese clan system, ancestor worship was a basic belief and living together with one’s clan was the social norm. People felt it upsetting and inconvenient to leave the environment and society in which they grew up. This concept and sentiment may seem passive and conservative, but it reflects the Chinese people’s simple love for their homeland, relatives, and a peaceful life.
DETAILED>>Different sounds produced when eight musical instruments made of gold, stone, earth, leather, silk, wood, gourd and bamboo are played together create harmonious music. This term comes from The Book of History. The term, which stresses that different tunes produced by the eight musical instruments should be blended in a harmonious way to create beautiful melody, epitomizes the pursuit of harmony of ancient Chinese music. Music gives expression to people’s sentiments; the eight different sounds relate to people’s different frames of mind, and can become a way of enlightenment. The term means that people can achieve peace of mind by listening to different kinds of music and should think and act in keeping with what the rites and music require of them. The phrase also implies that different people and groups can all voice their views, but should abide by common rules so as to maintain harmonious ties among them.
DETAILED>>
This is an important proposition made by the School of Names. GongsunLongzi(320?-250BC) discussed this thesis in great detail. In his view, “horse” is a name of the physical body of a horse, whereas “white” is the name for white color. “White horse” refers both to “horse” and “white” and therefore is not the same thing as that which is referred to as “horse.” The proposition that “a white horse is not a horse” is meant to point out that the name “horse” can't accurately refer to the particular characteristics of white, brown and black horses. More careful differentiation is necessary in order to indicate an object precisely.
If one can make the people live in peace and happiness, he can unify all the land. In ancient China, a "king" (wang 王) was not just the one who held the highest power. Rather, he was a man who clearly understood the fundamental principle of maintaining harmony with heaven and earth as well as other humans and enjoyed popular support. To "protect the people" is to love and care for them, ensuring that they obtain the means of survival, receive education and live and work in peace. To "protect the people" is the primary function of the state or government, a prerequisite for winning the people’s hearts and minds; it is also the source of legitimate power. It gives concrete expression to the vision of "putting the people first" and "benevolent governance."
This expression means to uphold the law by means of power. This is a way of governance advocated by Hanfeizi (280?-233 BC). Law is what all people have to abide by, regulating people’s conduct as well as the judgment of right or wrong, good or evil. “Power” refers to the position and strength of the ruler. “Upholding law by means of power” requires the ruler to use his power to ensure that the law is enforced through reward and punishment so as to maintain social order and social values.
This expression means forming ties among people based on a common just cause and not forming ties for selfish purposes.Bi (比), meaning to be “close,” implies affinity or attachment. Here it describes a group brought together by a common just cause.Dang (党), referring to“cliquish,”implies bias and factionalism. Here it describes a group brought together by personal ties and selfish interests. The former acts out of selflessness and is constructive which is something that has been praised by upright men through the ages; the latter uses power for selfish gain, which has been castigated by upright men through the ages.
Analogies in a literary work should be conveyed clearly, and associations, subtly. This is an important proposition in ancient Chinese poetics. Examples of analogy and association were first found in the six basic elements of The Book of Songs.“Analogy” means comparing one thing to another, with the focus on the external similarities of things, in order to better express one’s feelings and thoughts, thus making oneself more thoroughly understood. With this in view, similarities between two things should be made apparent and exact. “Association,” too, compares one thing to another, but such a link is indirect and nuanced, created by an inner combination of sentiment, charm and atmosphere, which can spark readers to infer other things from one instance, allowing the meaning of the text to be fully realized. The notion of explicit analogy versus implicit association is widely applied to poetry creation. Specifically, analogy is adjacent, obvious and easily intelligible, whereas association is profound, covert and aesthetically pleasing.
DETAILED>>The expression is proposed by the ancient military thinker Sunzi in The Art of War, and is one of his principles of conducting warfare. Sunzi believed that a commander should, on the basis of an accurate assessment of one’s own and the enemy’s force deployment, attack the weak front in the enemy’s deployment with superior force. This would ensure victory. This tactic is later also used by people to deal with social activities in which there is competition.
DETAILED>>Also “spontaneity and distinctiveness.” Biaoju (标举) originally meant “to mark out or stand out.” It later extended to mean “superior, unique, distinctive, and outstanding.” Hui (会) means “to get together.” Xinghui (兴会) refers to one’s passionate creative state and rich perceptions sparked by an object, and keen, naturally-inspired interest and charm in literary creation. The term, as a whole, indicates distinctive, spontaneous perceptions and emotions in literary creation, and intense interest and charm possessed by literary work. It is both a term of literary criticism and a concept of literary creation. Opposing false sentimentality, the term holds in esteem spontaneity, writers' talents and enthusiasm, and emphasizes free imagination based on intuition and free creation in a state of bursting inspirations.
DETAILED>>The key to winning a war is to act speedily. And the key to victory in warfare lies in seizing the initiative. Seizing the initiative means seizing the opportunity, because war situations change rapidly and opportunities to fight come and go instantly. So the army must act quickly to ensure the suddenness and success rate of combat operations. Otherwise, the initiative may easily fall into the enemy’s hands. If the war is prolonged, not only will there be unexpected consequences, but there will also be lowering of the army’s morale, leading to less effective combat and even falling into passivity (this is the same as the principle that “in war, seek quick victory, not prolongation”). This concept is also used to motivate people to do things decisively and quickly. It not only embodies the wisdom of Chinese military science, but also the philosophy that all procedures unfold according to time.
DETAILED>>This is a concrete embodiment of ancient Chinese philosopher Laozi’s concept of shourou (守 maintain; 柔 tenderness, gentleness). Laozi believed that every object has two sides, firmness as well as tenderness, strength as well as weakness. These two sides are not absolute, but under certain conditions, they can transform into the other. However, in the long run, things that appear to be firm and strong have in actuality reached its optimum, whereas things that are seemingly tender and weak are still full of vitality and vigor, and can escalate even further, just as those states which rely on force and flaunt their superiority everywhere will ultimately move towards their own destruction. This tells us that, in governing a state, or in managing interpersonal relations, one should never be overly staunch, and should not bully the weak. Instead, one should conquer the unyielding with gentleness, be firm but gentle, and tamper force with mercy, and only then can stability and harmony be achieved.
DETAILED>>This military concept was formulated by Sunzi, the ancient military strategist. It means that in directing a battle, one must not adhere to a predetermined plan. Depending on the specific situation, rapid adjustments must be made to make the best use of one's strengths and to avoid one's weaknesses, just as water assumes different shapes as its flow follows the lie of the land. This is what is known today as using flexible tactics and strategies to gain the initiative on the battlefield.
This term means sending an army to fight a just war, similar to the present idea of “fighting for righteousness.” Since ancient times, the Chinese people have held high esteem for an army sent to war for the sake of justice. Here yi (义) means stopping any aggressive act of violence, and eliminating the suffering of the people. War is an act of violence, and no one should initiate a war. Instead, war is a last resort to resist and prevent any violence inflicted on the people. The term demonstrates the ideals of justice and benevolence upheld by the Chinese nation.
Delivering a wide range of benefits to the people and relieving the suffering of the poor is crucial for good governance. It requires that a ruler must treat his subjects with benevolence, be responsive to people’s needs and their difficulties and bring extensive benefits to them. Such a ruler deserves to be called a sage.
DETAILED>>Confucian scholars believed that nothing is possible without sincerity, which is the basic principle or law followed by humans and all things. It is a process in which humans and all things give full play to their inherent nature or essential properties. Sincerity is what enables them to exist and improve themselves, and it is an ideal state of both their interaction and integration. In terms of human activities, it is obvious that without sincerity, nothing can be accomplished. This notion stresses that sincerity is both real and fundamental, that humans have subjectivity, and that with sincerity, they can achieve unity with the outer world.
DETAILED>>This expression originally denotes an observation that when objects lose their balance, they make sounds. Figuratively, it means that an ill-treated person will make sounds of protest and complaint. Han Yu (768-824), a famous writer in the Tang Dynasty, used the phrase to point out that writers will be driven to write when the outside world invokes in them feelings of injustice. Feelings like this compel writers to expose injustices through literature. This theory is a continuation and development of Confucius’ (551-479 BC) “Poetry can address
grievance” and the Grand Historian Sima Qian’s (145 or 135? -? BC)
“Indignation spurs one to write great works.” Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) in the Northern Song Dynasty further proposes “A good poem is the product of pent-up emotions.” He believes that only when a poet is trapped in a difficult and even perilous position with pent-up anger and frustration will he be able to compose quality poems.
This happens when artists do not aim deliberately for virtual replica in form between works of art and the objects depicted but make every effort to achieve a resemblance in spirit. This is also known as "dissimilar in form but similar in spirit." The Chinese theory of painting in the Tang, Song and Yuan dynasties emphasizes resemblance in spirit over similarity in form. The artistic elite represented by Shi Tao (1641-1718?) in the Ming Dynasty objected to both the idea that the artist should emphasize a profound artistic ambience at the expense of formal resemblance, and the idea that the artist's sole duty is to blindly imitate the form. They believe that an ideal work of art is both “dissimilar and yet similar at the same time.” “Dissimilar” means that an artist should paint with free will, discarding outdated practices, and not excessively pursuing resemblance in form. “Similar” means that painting should be based on true life and artists should strive for similarity in spirit. This principle of allowing for dissimilar form in quest of similar spirit strikes an ingenious balance between artistic reality and the reality of daily life.
DETAILED>>Laozi advocated “influencing others without preaching” as part of his philosophy of wuwei (无为) or non-action. In ancient times, rulers issued orders and instructions to shape their subjects’ speech, thoughts and behavior so as to conform to the proprieties. Laozi was against this kind of direct action, believing that instead of imposing their own will on the people, the sovereign should employ non-action and non-preaching methods to preserve and protect the natural state of their subjects. Later, the term came to mean influencing and guiding others by one’s moral conduct.
DETAILED>>This saying comes from Sunzi, the well-known military strategist, who said that the best military strategy is “to defeat the enemy without going to war.” He listed two ways for achieving this: ( 1 ) the use of stratagems to foil the enemy’s plans; ( 2 ) the use of diplomacy to totally isolate the enemy. The opponent is thus forced into a hopeless situation and compelled to submit. This is an over-arching vision of military strategy that combines politics, force, and diplomacy, and has been the ideal of generations of successful commanders. This thinking is prevalent up to the present day in international relations, “business wars,” and other areas. At its heart is the dictum “build yourself and form alliances.”
DETAILED>>To fight or not to fight is one’s own decision, not the enemy’s. This is a principle of military operations proposed by ancient Chinese. “Not to engage the enemy” does not mean passively avoiding confrontation, but means to avoid direct confrontation when the situation favors the enemy. One should not rush or be forced into confrontation just to respond to an enemy’s move. Instead, opt for a sustained defense to wear the enemy out and move them in a way that forces them to reveal their vulnerabilities. Then seize the opportunity to attack or counter-attack and win the battle. This concept emphasizes the importance of taking control in waging a war and advises against fighting when victory is not assured.
DETAILED>>This term means a great physician held in high esteem by everyone, a good doctor for all the people. This is the ideal image of a physician as described by the famous Tang Dynasty physician Sun Simiao (581-682) in his Essential Formulas for Emergencies. “All the people” refers mainly to the general populace; a “master physician” is an extraordinary doctor who is great and commands respect. Such a doctor has three basic qualities or spirits: the first is equality, treating all patients with the same care regardless of wealth, social status, or kinship ties; the second is caring, treating all patients as kin, with the deepest compassion and empathy; the third is selflessness, focusing only on treating patients without regard for personal safety or personal interests. This is the most important component of the concept that “a master physician must have superb skill and sincerity,” and the highest manifestation of “the caring heart of a physician,” which is the humanist spirit of Chinese medicine.
The concept of keeping wealth with the people has long been a part of Chinese political economy. Prior to the Qin Dynasty, the Confucian, Mohist, Daoist, and Legalist scholars as well as military strategists all expounded on this subject. A ruler is expected to be frugal and will not compete with the people for benefits, nor plunder their riches. Policies that are generous towards the people should be adopted, so as to permit and encourage them to become rich through justified means. The underlying assumption here is that a wealthy populace and a wealthy state are one and the same. A wealthy populace is the foundation of a state’s wealth as well as the fundamental guarantee for the state to win popular support. A state’s wealth is more than just about its riches, but about people’s support as well. This is an extension of the concept of “putting the people first,” and in the present day, keeping wealth with the people has become a defining feature of modern civilization.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the most influential school of poetic criticism of the mid-Qing Dynasty named after its leader Zhang Huiyan（1761-1802), a scholar from Changzhou. He compiled the Anthology of Ci, containing 116 ci poems by 44 poets from the Tang, the Five Dynasties, and the Song periods. His aesthetic criteria for ci poetry included portraying rich emotional content in concise language, and the painting of mood and feeling through subtle associations beyond the words themselves. Thanks to his commentaries, the literary status of the ci form was considerably elevated. Zhou Ji (1781-1839), who came after Zhang, not only continued in the same practice and theory but also expanded on his ideas and compiled the Selected Poems of Four Poets of the Song Dynasty. Zhou proposed a number of theories about writing ci: for beginners, to acquire the technique of ci writing, it is essential to learn to express their feelings through material references; but to achieve the true depth of the form, material references must not be contrived, and the emotions they represent should both infer yet transcend them. Another theory was “blending.” Tan Xian (1832-1901), Chen Tingzhuo (1853-1892), Kuang Zhouyi (1859-1926) were the third generation of this literary school. Their works Writings on Ci by Futang, Remarks on Ci Poetry from White Rain Studio, Notes and Commentaries on Ci by Huifeng further enriched and refined the art of writing and critiquing ci poetry. The most important contribution of the Changzhou School was to demonstrate from a theoretical angle the value of the ci form in expressing philosophical thoughts as well as ambitions and aspirations. This placed it on a par with other classical poetic forms.
DETAILED>>Chaochang (怊怅) literally means “melancholic feelings.” In this concept, it denotes the creative impulse of a writer who is in a disappointed, gloomy, or confused mood. Psychologically, feelings expressed in a common way may be simple and objective, but those to be released must be pent-up ones and based on strong impulses. If one is smoldering with inexplicable sorrow, worrying about missing and failing, or feels confused over what to pursue or something failed to obtain, catharsis may be triggered at any time. Releasing of melancholic feelings was common in the writings, and commentary on poetry and prose in ancient China.
DETAILED>>According to this concept, one can only grasp the essential meaning of a work by delving into its connotations through repeated reading and recitation. Chenqian (沉潜) means in-depth exploration and study, and fengsong (讽诵), recitation or reading aloud. “Focused study through reading and recitation”is a reading method proposed by the Song-dynasty scholar Zhu Xi (1130-1200) for studying Confucian classics such as The Book of Songs. Zhu Xi insists that in order to truly understand the intent and gist of the classics, one has to immerse oneself in them, carefully parsing and pondering the connotations and sentiments embodied, and engaging in repeated reading and recitation. As a matter of fact, such focused study through reading and recitation is not limited to the appreciation of Confucian classics and poetry, but can be broadly applied to reading essays, poetic rhapsodies, ci poems, lyrics of songs, and other literary genres and scholarly works. In short, “focused study through reading and recitation” is a reading method, which can be used both as an approach for appreciating literature and as a tool for studying classic scholarly works.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to poems whose content and emotion are both profound and pensive, with rising and falling tones. The concept is used by later generations to summarize the characteristics of the poetry of Du Fu ( 712-770 ), a poet from the Tang Dynasty. Du Fu’s long held concerns for the country and its people made him feel deeply pensive, which gives his work a wide ranging scope and emotional depth. And his poems give readers the impression of being inhibited and suppressed, pausing, and then all of a sudden, bursting forth. Du Fu’s poems have the distinctive artistic feature of “pensiveness and cadence” in terms of expression of content, emotion and rhythmic form.
DETAILED>>This term, concerning the motivation in poetry writing, was first used by the Southern Dynasty poetry theorist Zhong Rong (?-518？) in his The Critique of Poetry. He emphasized the impact upon a poet's creative activities of seasonal changes and encounters between humans, maintaining that the poet uses his work to show his inner feelings and aspirations. Zhong's poetic aesthetics, while recognizing the role of the outer world in inspiring poets, also valued the unique aesthetic value of feelings to poetry. This view was clearly more mature than that of "writing poetry for moral indoctrination only" held by Han Dynasty Confucian scholars.
DETAILED>>This
term has a two-fold meaning. Firstly, it refers to the need to rid an essay of
banal wording. Secondly, it encourages authors to discard mediocre, derivative
ideas when writing. It is a term raised by the Tang Dynasty man of letters Han
Yu (768-824) about prose writing. Han emphasized that essays should be written
in an innovative way. He guarded against stereotyped expression and argument
and opposed any rigid convention. This view echoed the idea of "writing to convey
Dao" put forward by Han Yu during the Classical Prose Movement he led, a
movement which aimed to abandon rhythmical prose
characterized by parallelism and ornateness in favor of ancient prose of
the Han Dynasty.
This concept originated in The Book of Rites and Xunzi. The Confucian view is that human emotions arise naturally and need to be properly expressed. They have an inescapable influence on people’s conduct and their moral behavior. To maintain an orderly and stable moral order, it is important that the emotions of people are properly expressed and not indiscriminately suppressed. Therefore, moral standards should be based on people’s reasonable desire.
DETAILED>>Have a Complete Image of the Bamboo Before Drawing It / Have a Fully Formed Picture in the Mind’ Eye
This term means to have an image of the art in one’s mind prior to artistic creation. It describes the use of mental imagery in the course of artistic creation, and also sets a requirement for both artistic creation and for design in craftsmanship. For the creator of an artwork, concepts, feelings, intentions and objects should be integrated in the mind to form an aesthetic image. After this artistic conceptualization is completed, technique is used in conjunction with physical materials to form a tangible work. For a craft designer, the emphasis would be more on rational thinking, and revisions would be permissible. Having a fully formed picture in advance is an ideal state.
DETAILED>>In the Northern Song Dynasty, Yang Shi (1053–1135), together with his friend You Zuo (1053–1123), went to visit the renowned scholar Cheng Yi (1033–1107) to seek his answer to some questions they had. Cheng was having a nap. Not to disturb him, they waited outside the gate, standing in heavy snowfall. When Cheng woke up, he was deeply moved and gave detailed answers to Yang Shi's questions. Yang later became a great scholar. This story urges students to learn from their teachers respectfully. A similar story is told in a Zen Buddhist text. Huike (487-593), a Buddhist monk, sought guidance from Bodhidharma (?-528 or 536), who is credited with having introduced Zen to China. Huike also waited a long time at night
This refers to emptying one's mind, casting aside all kinds of worldly interference and eliminating the desire for fame and fortune. In a state of thorough, lucid serenity, one can observe and enjoy physical objects as manifested by Dao. “Clearing the mind” is the precondition for “savoring aesthetic images.” People's appreciation of beauty can approach the infinite Dao only by breaking loose from worldly constraints and vulgar influences. At that very moment, the boundary between oneself and external objects disappears. The beholder, feasting eyes on beautiful mountains, rivers and lakes, achieves communion with Dao and thus attains a true mental freedom and transcendence. “Clearing the mind for pure contemplation” is an important term in traditional Chinese landscape painting theory; categorically, it belongs to artistic intuitionism. It carries on and further develops Laozi's notion of cleansing away all distracting thoughts and watching the world with a clear, peaceful mind, which inspires theories of creativity in calligraphy, literature and other artistic fields.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the pure heart and soul of a newborn babe, untainted by worldly affairs. Most often, it refers to adults who retain the utter innocence of an infant, holding themselves aloof from worldly goals. In the field of political ethics, the term highlights humans’ natural kindness, calling for empathy with others and child-like wonder for truth. In literary creation and aesthetics, it refers mainly to a pure state of being filled with subtle feelings and noble ideals, transcending all worldly pursuits and sophistication, and rejecting an overly rational mentality lacking aesthetic judgment. The term promotes an ideal personality worshiped by ancient Chinese and represents a laudable type of character often portrayed in literary works.
DETAILED>>This concept, as opposed to “revere the fundamental and dismiss the specific,” originates in Wang Bi’s (226-249) interpretation of Laozi. The fundamental, namely, Dao, is shapeless and nameless, while the specific refers to natural shapes and names. The term “revere the fundamental and keep the specific unchanged” means giving full rein to Dao and void so that the nature emerges and stays active. Politically, this term means a sovereign should govern on the basis of Dao and do nothing that goes against nature. He should revere the fundamental to ensure that the people can lead their lives as dictated by their inherent nature.
DETAILED>>This term deals with the relationship between the fundamental and the specific. In interpreting Laozi, Wang Bi (226-249) put forth the idea of “revering the fundamental and dismissing the specific,” as opposed to the idea of “revering the fundamental and keeping the specific unchanged.” The fundamental here means Dao which is shapeless and nameless, while the specific refers to man-made things in various forms and names. The term “revere the fundamental and dismiss the specific” is meant to give full rein to Dao and void so as to maintain the inherent nature of all things and at the same time stop the pursuit of all kinds of man-made things in various forms and names. Politically, “revere the fundamental” means that a sovereign should govern on the basis of Dao and do nothing that goes against nature. At the same time, he should dismiss the rigid inculcation of moral values and rules and stop all false and pretentious rhetoric and behaviors.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the way an author may be motivated to have creative thoughts at the sight of natural objects or other things. The imagery in his work is thus constituted. Xing (兴) here refers to the mental capacity to produce an emotional response to an external object, either because the author feels a certain emotion or interest inspired by the external object, or because the external object has become a vehicle for carrying the author’s existing emotion awakened by the imagery. The former is equivalent to the mental projection effect of the subject onto the object, while the latter is the object calling and guiding the subject into empathic experience. Natural objects, objects in literary and artistic works and indeed all objects are capable of arousing emotion and feelings. In his book The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties used the concept “draw inspiration from external objects” as a summary of the characteristics of the lyrical works of the Han Dynasty in the style of xiaofu (小赋) and as a description of the aesthetic effects and writing requirements of general lyrical works.
DETAILED>>This term refers to literary descriptions of characters which are accurate both in form and in spirit. Chuanshen (传神), to “convey the spirit,” is to fully express the spiritual world within the character, so that he comes to life; xiezhao (写照), to “capture the person,” is to create a vivid physical depiction of him. These expressions were originally used in discussions of art but were later introduced into literature. They represent an artistic state which artists and writers try to achieve as they create images of people as well as all artistic images.
DETAILED>>The style of The Spring and Autumn Annals is characterized by simple and concise language expressing ideas and commending or criticizing historical figures and events in an indirect way. The style is well known for “what is included or excluded has profound meanings.” Also “every word in it reflects either approval or censure of the sage,” and “subtle words carry profound meanings.” Tradition has it that The Spring and Autumn Annals was edited by Confucius（551-479 BC） for the purpose of safeguarding the rites of the Zhou Dynasty. The text does not use argumentative language to express the author’s views; instead, it tactfully expresses favorable and unfavorable views on historical figures and events by giving brief accounts using designations with special connotations or subtle expressions derived according to the rites of Zhou. Later on, this particular style became a traditional method of compiling history works.
DETAILED>>When two things are interdependent, the fall of one will endanger the other. According to the early chronicle Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, when the State of Jin wanted to march through the State of Yu in order to attack Yu’s neighbor, the State of Guo. Gongzhiqi, a minister of Yu, remonstrated with his ruler, saying, “Guo provides a protective shield for Yu. If Guo falls, Yu will soon follow. The relationship between Yu and Guo is like that between lips and teeth.” This shows that since ancient times the Chinese nation has been keen to maintain friendly ties with neighboring countries. It represents pragmatic geopolitical thinking of maintaining amity with close neighbors.
DETAILED>>Writing should be substantive and succinct in expressing main ideas or key content. “Succinctness” means to capture the essence. The idea comes from The Book of History, originally referring to the requirement that government edicts and regulations should be terse and to the point. Liu Xie ( 465 ?- 520 ? or 532 ?) applied this into literary criticism, emphasizing that writing should be both substantive and pithy, striving to capture the essence. This term reflects the traditional pursuit for “succinctness” in Chinese culture, which prefers to convey a rich message in a concise way rather than seek novel expressions that may overshadow the essence of the writing. Later on, this became a fundamental requirement for the classical style of writing and provided important guidance for literary creation.
The term is used to describe an excessively exquisite artistic work as if it were an object painted in bright colors and inlaid with gold and silver. In the literary context, it refers to poems written in a highly rhetorical style. Aesthetically, what is “gilded and colored” is considered undesirable, and the style of “lotus rising out of water” is preferred. The former focuses only on external form and appearance, whereas the latter, as a natural presentation of aesthetic ideas, penetrates appearances and brings out the essence.
DETAILED>>The most popular and most fundamental truths, principles, and methodologies tend to be expressed in simple words and are easy to understand. Dadao (大道) means great truth, or universally applicable laws governing nature and society, or the fundamental principles for people to follow in treating nature and governing society. The Chinese character jian (简) means simple, concise, and easy. The term is often used to describe the governance of a state and management of society. It has two primary meanings. First, it means that the most popular and fundamental truths should be expressed in simple words so that ordinary people can easily understand and put them into practice. Second, dadao is not something separate and far away from reality. Rather, it is a practical ethical principle which is easy for people to follow in their daily lives. As long as one sees through the seemingly complicated superficialities and traces the source of things, one will be able to grasp the fundamental truths, discover the basic rules, and comprehend them in spite of the complexity.
DETAILED>>The term means that ingenuity and skill at their best look simple and clumsy. The greatest ingenuity should be something completely natural and that it has not been painstakingly worked on. The term comes from the book Laozi. Laozi the philosopher believed that everything should be in keeping with nature. He advocated non-action and was against any form of excessive act. Later, the term came to mean the highest possible level of skill and perfection in artistic and literary creation. In Chinese literary theory, “exquisite skill looks simple and clumsy” does not mean the clumsier the better, nor is it a rejection of skill. Rather, it rejects excessive embellishment and over-pursuit of the exquisite, and encourages well-founded simplicity and naturalness. The phrase represents the highest possible level of perfection in artistic beauty and skill and is also what the people in pre-modern China strove to achieve in calligraphy, painting, gardening, and other forms of art.
DETAILED>>The greatest trust includes but is not limited to pledges. Ancient Chinese believed that trust is a person standing by their word. To act in good faith is a basic requirement for a person to become fully human. Trust is essential for an agreement or a pledge. An agreement is only a representation of trust. Without trust, an agreement is just a piece of paper. An agreement is meaningful only when parties concerned have trust. This concept stresses the importance of the spirit of good faith.
DETAILED>>A master physician must have both superb medical skills and a desire to help the world. This is how Sun Simiao (581-682), a famous Tang Dynasty physician, described a doctor in his work Essential Formulas for Emergencies. A “master physician” is an extraordinary and great doctor who wins the respect of others. Jing(精) or “superb” refers to outstanding medical skills and a striving for perfection; cheng (诚) or “sincere” means being devoted to treating the sick and injured. This encompasses both the professional and ethical aspects of the spirit of Chinese medicine, and is an organic integration of the scientific and humanistic spirits. Like the concepts of “the caring heart of the physician” and “practicing medicine to help the world,” this concept has been held in high regard by doctors through the ages and remains relevant to this day.
DETAILED>>This phrase means that one should behave ethically and never dodge one’s responsibility. Ren (仁 benevolence) is the highest virtue upheld by Confucius（551-479 BC）. In general, it refers to everything that is right to do, namely things compatible with moral principles and social justice. The term is similar in meaning to “committing oneself completely out of a sense of duty,” and “feeling morally obliged.” It promotes a positive attitude that takes safeguarding morality and justice as one’s own responsibility and dares to shoulder and execute that responsibility.
DETAILED>>This concept means that the fundamental principle known as Dao (the Way) should be pure and consistent. This was allegedly the view of Confucius (551–479BC), as stated in the classic Zhuangzi. In the name of Confucius, Zhuangzi (369?-286BC) states that if the fundamental principle admits a mixture of ideas, there will be divergence, interference, conflict and confusion among them, and this will lead to great chaos. As it applies to governance of the state, this concept emphasizes the importance of purity and consistency of the guiding thought. It is similar to the concept that great truth is expressed in simple words.
DETAILED>>Dao operates in accordance with natural conditions of all things. This idea first appeared in the book Laozi, according to which “natural” means the natural state of things. Dao creates and nurtures everything, yet it does not command anything. In political philosophy, the relationship between Dao and natural things implies that between the ruler and the people. The rulers should follow the natural requirements of Dao, which places limits on their power, and govern by means of non-interference to allow the people and affairs to take their own natural course.
DETAILED>>The term means to save and help all people through upholding truth and justice. Dao (道) here refers to truth and justice, and also to particular thought or doctrine. Ji (济) means relieving or helping people out of difficulties or sufferings. Tianxia (天下) refers to everything under heaven, and particularly all people. Therefore, this phrase contains two meanings. First, the value of any particular Dao depends on whether it serves the interests of the people. Second, people of virtue, and intellectuals in particular, should apply Dao they have learned to serve the people and use the ancient classics they have studied to meet present needs. Much like the idea of “studying ancient classics to meet present needs,” this notion of “supporting all people by upholding truth and justice,” represents the ultimate goal and ideal character of the traditional Chinese intellectuals in their pursuit of knowledge. It also embodies the compassion and moral standards of the traditional Chinese intellectuals as they pursue and uphold truth, care about the livelihood of the people, and take upon themselves the responsibility for the world.
DETAILED>>That the virtue of those exercising power is reflected in good governance is a political concept put forward in The Book of History, an ancient Chinese political classic. For one who exercises power, virtue is not just maintaining his moral integrity, certainly not empty talk. Rather, it must find expression in his interactions with others and effective governance. In other words, the virtue of one who exercises power is defined by good governance that he strives to achieve. If one who exercises power fails to maintain good political governance, his virtue is called into question. Ultimately, good government should deliver a good life to the people. What this concept stresses is the importance of virtuous governance for the people.
DETAILED>>The term refers to knowledge derived from the functioning of the mind, which, in contrast to “knowledge from one’s senses,” transcends knowledge obtained through the sensory organs. Zhang Zai (1020-1077) was the first to differentiate between “knowledge from one’s senses” and “knowledge from one’s moral nature.” Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty felt that people gained knowledge about the world in which they lived in two ways. Knowledge obtained from seeing and hearing was “knowledge from one’s senses,” whereas knowledge obtained through moral cultivation of the mind was “knowledge from one’s moral nature.” “Knowledge from one’s moral nature” was not reliant on the sensory organs； it transcended “knowledge from one’s senses” and was fundamental knowledge about the world in which one lived.
DETAILED>>See natural things or landscapes and feel a certain emotion – this can happen in two kinds of situations: one when seeking to relieve emotions by fixing one’s gaze on an object, or looking for objective counterparts for one’s existing emotions; the other when passively seeing things which arouse one’s emotions. In the second sense it is akin to the concept “draw inspiration from external objects,” where natural objects or other things inspire creative interest and emotion. It is mainly about the emotional effect of external objects on the subject when, in the absence of certain emotions or with other emotions deeply embedded in the heart, an author is touched by accidental encounters with external objects. The concept “be moved at the sight of natural objects” is mainly about the author’s love for nature. With the concept “draw inspiration from external object,” what inspires creative interest and emotion is not limited to natural objects. For example, literary and artistic works can inspire similar interest and emotion. However, the concept “be moved at the sight of natural objects” is primarily used in reference to natural objects or landscapes.
DETAILED>>From ancient times, Chinese people have held this dialectical view on disasters: though it is calamitous for a country to be plagued by frequent ills or facing other disasters, its people are likely to unite as one and overcome adversities and break new ground; this enables them to create a more prosperous and stronger nation and a happier life. The expression represents the fortitude and solidarity of the Chinese people in times of trial and tribulation. It also illustrates their enterprise and will to triumph over trouble, turn crises into opportunities, and take initiative in the making of history.
DETAILED>>This term, which figuratively means to replace the flesh and bones of an ordinary human being with those of an immortal, is used to describe a literary technique in which a writer uses his own words to express new ideas while quoting those from earlier works. The emphasis is on borrowing from the past without showing any traces, yet forming something new in the process. In poetry, this is achieved primarily by substituting words and ideas to highlight a theme, thus creating a beautiful new phrase. Duotai (夺胎) is to identify an idea in an existing work and to imbue it with new meaning by expounding, deepening or broadening it. Huangu (换骨) is to identify a brilliant idea or feeling in an earlier work which is insufficiently expressed, and to give it greater refinement and clarity by expressing it with a more appropriate choice of words. This technique exemplifies how literature both perpetuates and yet changes tradition. Cultural scholarship can also borrow from this method to build on the past and to further develop.
DETAILED>>The law treats everybody equally, not favoring the rich and powerful. The Legalists in ancient China argued that there should be no distinction between noble and poor or close and distant people; punishment or reward should be meted out strictly in accordance with the law. They believed in fairness in enforcing the law and treating everyone as equal before the law. This belief has been championed through the ages and is a major source of the notion of rule of law.
DETAILED>>The law is born of what is most appropriate. This was the viewpoint of Liu An (179-122 BC), King of Huainan in the Western Han Dynasty. His belief rests on the principle that laws are intentionally crafted by people, acting as a compass for guiding their conduct. The foundation on which laws are built, or their intrinsic rationale, springs from a collective moral consensus – a social agreement on what is deemed fitting and fair. Liu An’s philosophy embeds a profound reflection on legal justice – a strand that parallels the Western narratives on justice that took root in ancient Greece and Rome and evolved through to the modern age.
DETAILED>>This term refers to self-examination of one’s own words, deeds, and inner thoughts. Introspection is a way of moral cultivation put forward by Mencius（372？—289 BC）. Mencius inherited the Confucian belief that one’s moral integrity and meritorious deeds are determined by his own ethical cultivation. If his words or deeds fail to gain endorsement or appreciation from others, one should not blame them. On the contrary, one should examine himself to find out if his words and deeds as well as inner thoughts conform to standards of ethics and propriety.
DETAILED>>This term can also be translated as “nipping the problem in the bud.” Hidden or inconspicuous things are not easily discovered. But there are always warning signs, indications of something newly emerged, slowly developing. All things evolve from hidden to obvious, from small to big, and in time they may lead to harmful consequences. If early steps are not taken to prevent mistakes and problems and to eliminate any defects in time, it will be costly to deal with the consequences, and even disaster may ensue. Thus, people should gain a deep understanding and good grasp of what underlies the evolution of things.
DETAILED>>Originally this term indicated that a woman had a delicate figure, that she was fleshy and limber. Later it was used to judge calligraphy and painting, indicating that the circulation of the writing brush was lavish and vigorous, but that the strength of the bone (structure) was weak. Bone (structure) means skeletal structure, indicating weakness or vigor in the strength of the writing brush and in the structure of the work. “Fleshy” indicates that the lines are sumptuous and charming, but without strength, or that the ink is thick and the colors heavy. In the old days, it was stressed that a work of calligraphy or a painting should have a bone (structure) and be fleshy and that there should be a proper balance between the bone and flesh. There should neither be a lack of elegance nor of vigor and strength. Therefore, “fleshy body and soft bone structure” is regarded as a demerit. But when there is a stout bone structure and soft muscles, or when the bone structure is stout and the muscles are smooth, both are considered desirable. This term shifted from depicting human figures to appreciating art works, giving expression to the Chinese aesthetic concept of “using body parts to describe what is near.”
DETAILED>>When worse comes to the worst, things and events at their extremes will reverse and turn for the better. Tai (泰) and pi (否), two of the hexagram names in The Book of Changes, represent the positive and negative aspects of things, with one unimpeded and the other blocked, one faced with favorable conditions and the other with adversity, and one good and the other bad. In the view of ancient Chinese, all things cycle around and forever change. When they reach a certain critical point, they will transform into the opposite of their extreme characteristics. The term reveals the dialectical movements of development and change. It gives moral support and hope to people experiencing difficulties, and encourages people to be optimistic, seize the opportunity, work hard, and turn things around. From a dialectical perspective, it represents a sense of preparing for the worst.
DETAILED>>The term of lotus rising out of water describes a scene of freshness, quiet refinement and natural beauty, in contrast to “gilded and colored” embellishments. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, people valued nature and favored this aesthetic view. In their artistic creations, they pursued the natural and fresh style like lotus rising out of water. They sought natural presentation of their ideas and were opposed to excessive ornamentation.
DETAILED>>Fortune and misfortune are intertwined. The term “fortune and misfortune” refers broadly to opposing aspects such as the auspicious and inauspicious, advantages and disadvantages, gains and losses, good and bad. The ancient Chinese believed that such opposing aspects are relative, and that they also share common elements. They are dialectically unified during the course of an event; as the event progresses, conditions change and turn into their opposites. Bad things may lead to good outcomes and good things may likewise lead to bad outcomes. This dialectic is a reminder that when circumstances are favorable, one must be on guard against bad developments; similarly, when circumstances are unfavorable, one must see a ray of hope and, at the right moment, try to make things take a turn for the better. Ideas such as “things reverse course when pushed to an extreme,” “be on alert against potential danger when living in peace,” and “losing a horse may be a blessing in disguise” are related to this dialectical approach.
DETAILED>>The mother country is the country where your parents are or came from, or where you were born and belong to; it is your homeland; it mostly refers to your own country and motherland, which is similar to sangzi (桑梓 native place). This name connotes the natural emotion of intertwining the sense of community based on kinship and geography with the love for hometown, and the patriotism that arises therefrom. Patriotism is a deep and lasting tradition of the Chinese nation, the core of the Chinese national spirit, a firm belief and a source of strength for every Chinese.
DETAILED>>Gang (刚) and rou (柔) are two mutually complementary measures. They refer to two opposite properties or qualities that objects and human beings possess. In the realm of governance, gang means being tough and stern, while rou means being soft and lenient, and the term means to combine tough management with gentle care. Gang and rou are considered to be a concrete manifestation of yin and yang. Their mutual opposition and accommodation are the causes of change. When formulating and implementing policies and decrees or managing a society or an enterprise, there must be a certain balance between gang and rou.
DETAILED>>Do away with the old and set up the new. Ge (革) and ding (鼎) are two trigrams in The Book of Changes. In Commentary on The Book of Changes, it is explained that the lower ge trigram symbolizes fire and the upper ge trigram symbolizes water. Since fire and water are opposed and in conflict, and they cannot keep an original state of equilibrium, changes are bound to occur. Consequently, the ge trigram implies change of an unsuitable old state of affairs. The lower ding trigram symbolizes wood and the upper ding trigram symbolizes fire. When people throw the wood into the fire, they can cook their food in a ding. Thus, the ding trigram signifies the creation of new things. Following the doctrine in Commentary on The Book of Changes, later people combined the two together to represent an outlook advocating changes.
DETAILED>>The term means to understand how we should conduct ourselves through our contact with things. “Studying things to acquire knowledge” comes from The Great Learning, a section of The Book of Rites. Together with “being sincere in thought,” “rectifying one’s mind,” “cultivating oneself,” “regulating one’s family well,” “governing the state properly,” and “bringing peace to all under heaven,” they are collectively known as the “eight essential principles.” Knowledge is acquired through the study of things. Since the two are closely related, they are sometimes together called “study and acquire.” Throughout history scholars have had varied understandings of the meaning of the term. Some emphasize a thorough inquiry of principles in contact with things. Others stress personal practice in order to master all kinds of moral conduct and skills. Still others consider their intentions as things, thus reforming their innermost thoughts as studying things.
DETAILED>>“Disharmony” here means an insincere articulation of feeling or an unnatural depiction of scenery. This happens when there is a lack of complete blend of feeling and scenery, causing readers to feel at odds, or unable to identify, with what they are reading. “Harmony,” on the other hand, means a true expression of feeling or a natural depiction of scenery, creating an aesthetic feeling of “being right there to witness.” This pair of contrasting terms was first used by Wang Guowei (1877-1927) in his critical work Poetic Remarks in the Human World, where he combines the appreciation of natural beauty and the emphasis on the reading experience favored by ancient China's literati along with the influence of Western notions of artistic intuition. Intuition relates to artistic experience and psychological habit, and discussion of this pair of opposites shows the convergence of Chinese and Western literary aesthetic thought.
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This term means that public property belongs to the public and private property belongs to individuals. Liezi held that public property, like anything naturally formed between heaven and earth, is an organic whole that cannot be divided and given to individuals at random. A clear separation of the public and private interests is in conformity with the law of nature. This concept grew out of the Daoist philosophy of “non-action governance,” which is a principle that the government should follow in its rule of a country, and also a state of one’s moral cultivation.
It refers to the literary reform movement in the mid-Tang to the Northern Song period. It opposed rigidly rhythmical prose featuring parallelism and excessive elegance that had been popular in the Six Dynasties, and advocated a return to writing in “truly” classical Chinese. This movement was both intellectual and social in nature. Its representative figures included Han Yu (768-824) and Liu Zongyuan (773-819) of the Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), Su Xun (1009-1066), Wang Anshi (1021-1086), Zeng Gong (1019-1083), Su Shi (1037-1101), and Su Zhe (1039-1112) of the Song Dynasty. In this particular context, the notion of classical prose stood in contrast to rigidly rhythmical prose. Classical prose, first proposed by Han Yu, referred to the prose of the Qin, Western Han, and Eastern Han dynasties. It featured poetic lines of flexible lengths with no particular regard for metric pattern and parallel structure. In terms of content, classical prose aimed to express ideas and reflect real life. Rigidly rhythmical prose, on the other hand, was a style of writing popular in the pre-Tang period which had rigid requirement about the use of parallelism, elegant wording, prosody, melody, and allusions. Although there were good works in this genre, most were rigid in form and hollow in content. In view of this, Han Yu called for a return to the literary tradition of the Western and Eastern Han dynasties to reform literary writing. He gained the strong support of eminent men of letters such as Liu Zongyuan. Together, they launched what was later widely known as the Classical Prose Movement. Han Yu took this initiative to combine the reform of literary writing with the revival of Confucian moralism so as to enable literary writing to promote better governance. But rhythmical prose did not die out altogether; it continued into the late Tang period. Northern Song writer Ouyang Xiu, with strong political influence, championed the revival of classical prose. His contemporary Su Xun, as well as his students Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong, Su Shi, and Su Zhe all wrote classical prose with distinctive styles. Influenced by Su Shi, Huang Tingjian (1045-1105), Chen Shidao (1053-1102), Zhang Lei (1054-1114), Qin Guan (1049-1100), and Chao Buzhi (1053-1110) also became prominent prose writers. Thanks to the efforts of these literary figures, the Classical Prose Movement flourished in the Song Dynasty.
DETAILED>>This term means to be bright without being dazzling. Laozi used the term to describe the influence of those in power on ordinary people. High status, authority and resources enable them to have a great impact on people’s lives, just like a bright light that cannot be avoided. However, Laozi also believed that no person in power should impose his will on the people, whose natural state should be maintained and protected. To be influenced but not harmed is like being surrounded by light but not dazzled by it. The term can be used to describe the way any powerful person should treat others.
DETAILED>>Chen Zi’ang (659-700), the early Tang Dynasty writer believed that concise and clear wording makes writings shine, and he strongly opposed excessive exposition and repeated ornamentation. He held that this would drown out the purpose of the article and that if an article’s main theme is not manifest, it would lose its appeal. This is in line with his advocacy of the prevailing literary style in the Jian’an era at the end of the Han Dynasty and the Zhengshi literary style of the final years of the State of Wei in the Three Kingdoms period. He put emphasis on expressing the theme and character of an article and he calls for a writing style whose beauty lies in its strength and clarity, as opposed to a style that was flamboyant and weak. This idea became the precursor to the literary innovation movement in the Tang Dynasty.
DETAILED>>When a country is at peace, its people enjoy a happy life. This term is similar to another ancient concept – “peaceful land.” Since ancient times, this has been the goal of governance pursued by all decent rulers. It has also been a vision cherished by commoners. The key to reaching such a state lies with stability and peace. This has been regarded as the common source of well-being for both the country and the people. It also reflects the humanistic spirit of the Chinese people who cherish stability and peace.
DETAILED>>It is just as bad to go beyond a given standard as to fall short of it. Confucian scholars use rites as the standards both for individuals’ words and actions, and for their relationship with everything in the world. They also judge people’s words or actions against the requirements of the rites to see whether they have gone too far or fallen short. Confucius (551-479 BC) evaluated one of his students as “going too far” and another as “falling short,” considering them to be the same in both failing the requirements set by the rites. If a person can follow the middle way by not going too far or falling short, then he has achieved the virtue of “the Golden Mean.”
DETAILED>>Noble spirit is a powerful source of cultivating integrity in one’s life. In Mencius’ （372？-289 BC） view, it goes hand in hand with morality and justice and originates from within rather than from without. If one lives an ethical life and regularly conducts soul searching, he will be imbued with noble spirit and will willingly stand up for what is right.
DETAILED>>The harmony of music comes from its appropriateness and its concordance with the soul. “Harmony” refers to how different sounds are combined and attuned to each other. “Appropriateness” refers to the pitch and timbre of the music itself, as well as to the degree to which the listener can accept the music. This term highlights the need for harmony and accord between the object—music—and the subject—the soul, in order for music to be appreciated. The beauty of music is generated by harmony between the subjective and the objective.
DETAILED>>This concept of living in harmony with others without losing moral ground was mentioned in early Confucian classics such as The Doctrine of the Mean and Xunzi. Confucianism believed that interpersonal relations should be in proper order and harmonious. But it was concerned that if one only pursues harmony, desire to foster personal ties can easily lead to a failure to abide by the moral code and to loss of moral ground. Confucianism therefore emphasized the importance of abiding by one’s moral standard while maintaining harmonious relations with others.
DETAILED>>The term means achieving overall harmonious co-existence on the basis of respecting differences and diversity. Uniformity and harmony are two different attitudes to treating and accommodating social groups. Uniformity means obliterating differences in everything while harmony is to keep and respect the differences. Allowing different things to complement and supplement each other will create a harmonious whole full of vitality and creativity.
DETAILED>>The notion that harmony begets new things was advanced by Grand Astrologer Shibo in the late Western Zhou Dynasty. He believed different things, when coexisting in harmony, would complement each other and beget new things. When applied to political governance, this concept requires those in power to preserve the particular features of different people and things and allow them to flourish. This nurtures the growth of new things and promotes the development of society.
DETAILED>>Youth means vitality, creativity, and unlimited possibilities as well as future and hope. Young people have great potential and they will outperform their predecessors. Therefore, elders should treat, reward, and promote the younger generation with respect and an open mind. This is the norm for governing intergenerational relations established by Confucius (551–479 BC), a norm that has been observed by later generations. The view young people should be highly regarded contains hopes for the new generation and respect for the future. It also demonstrates a firm belief and optimism in the continuous advance of humanity and its future.
DETAILED>>This term means that one should be broad-minded and care for all things and people. Ancient Chinese believed that with its topography and other natural features being generous and peaceful, the earth sustained all things in the world, allowing them to grow and develop in keeping with their own nature. Men of virtue model themselves on the earth, and just like the earth, care for all things and fellow human beings with open heart and virtue. This embodies the pursuit of moral cultivation and harmony among people and between people and nature. It represents the Chinese views and ideals on governance and human relationship, which were inspired by the formation and features of mountains and rivers in China. Together with the notion of constantly exerting oneself for self-improvement, it forms the fundamental character of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>The term means to accumulate as much as possible but to release a little at a time. This often refers to the process of scholarly research or artistic creation, in which one should first extensively absorb the knowledge and results of others to acquire a wealth of knowledge and lay a solid foundation. On this basis, one is engaged in further scholarly studies or artistic creation, attempting to make new accomplishments. It can also refer to a country or a business which, after a long period of building up its strength, begins to gradually unleash its potential and ability to innovate and proceed to break new ground. The message of this expression is that one should never seek quick results; rather, one should pay attention to accumulating knowledge and making full preparations before making advances.
DETAILED>>This term means changing element of evil in one’s intrinsic nature and developing acquired nature of goodness. This ethical principle is put forward by Xunzi （313？-238 BC）based on his belief that human nature is evil. Xunzi believes that the desire for external things is an intrinsic part of human nature. Unrestrained pursuit of such desire leads to rivalry between people and throws society into chaos. Therefore, it is imperative to rein in human desire and make people accept and observe rites and laws.
DETAILED>>This expression refers to pursuing conciliatory and benevolent policies and offering benefits to tribes and groups in remote areas. It was a political concept adopted by successive governments led mostly by the Han people in their relations with other ethnic groups, tribes in remote areas not yet directly under their rule, and foreign states. It also represented an important component of the theory of winning over others by virtue. China was, as it is today, a multi-ethnic country. The Han-led government ruled over a large territory and believed that they had an advanced culture. They usually took a conciliatory approach based on the Confucian concept of benevolence in dealing with the tribes and populations in remote regions, rather than conquering them by force, with the goal of placating them and winning their allegiance.
DETAILED>>The term means that the plot of scenes in a literary work, while imaginary, nonetheless have inner force and reflect reality in society. According to Buddhist and Daoist thought, society is transitory and shifting and people should not hold on to something unreal; rather, they should transcend delusions and recognise the true essence of things. As pointed out by literary and art critics, to gain keen appreciation of literary works and real life, people should learn to go beyond the imaginary aspect to grasp the truth of a creative work so as to enjoy its beauty. As a term in literary criticism, truth in imagination not only sheds light on the aesthetic function and significance of literature and arts, but also reveals a fundamental principle of literary and artistic creation, that is, art creation should be rooted in real life but not limited by it. Instead, it should aim at blending the truth of life and artistic imagination.
DETAILED>>The term refers to six techniques and aesthetic principles for painting formulated by Xie He, a painter between Qi and Liang of the Southern Dynasties. After studying famous painters of the previous age, he summarized his views on painting in six basic rules: dynamic style, forceful brush strokes, life-like image, characteristic coloring, careful arrangement and imitation and copying models. In this way, he established a theoretical framework for traditional painting. “Dynamic style” means that a painting should make the viewers appreciate its vitality and charm. This is a general principle focusing on the aesthetic effect. The other five rules concern specific techniques. “Forceful brush strokes” means being able to wield the brush to portray characters freely with lines of various shapes. “Life-like image” means the image should vividly capture the form of the depicted. “Characteristic coloring” means applying color according to the characteristics of the subject of the painting. “Careful arrangement” means a composition should achieve a good overall effect. “Imitation and copying models” means copying masterpieces to refine one’s painting skills. These rules became the basis for later art criticism and discourse on the five aspects of technique, providing a summary of ideal painting techniques and enriching theory on painting. The “six rules of painting” cover the basic techniques and aesthetics of ancient Chinese painting. They also established guidelines for art appreciation and influenced criticism and artistic creation in China from the Six Dynasties on.
The original meaning of this phrase is that a piece of white silk must be prepared before one can paint. The concept was then extended to mean that beauty comes from natural simplicity. From this, Confucius (551-479 BC) put forward the notion that benevolence and righteousness are fundamental and the code of ethics secondary, emphasizing that the teaching of the rites originates in human nature. This concept was later introduced into literary and artistic creation and criticism, which advocates that elaboration should be based on substance, and that style and substance should be compatible and complement each other to bring out the natural beauty.
DETAILED>>Xunzi （313？-238 BC）first proposed this idea as a way to cultivate rectitude. He believed that following human nature alone leads to endless contention over external objects, resulting in disruption and discord within communities. Ethics and morals are instilled in a person through nurture and education. By conforming to the demands of proper speech and conduct over a long period of time, a person gradually develops a sense of propriety and inner morality.
DETAILED>>This concept originated in Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals and was proposed by Shuxing. Generally speaking, individuals strive for auspiciousness and seek to avoid inauspiciousness. However, there are divergent views on the causes that lead to auspicious or inauspicious outcomes. Some believe that these states are beyond human control, governed by external forces, laws, or fate. The concept that the outcome of auspiciousness or inauspiciousness depends on human behavior challenges this notion and asserts that the results of auspiciousness and inauspiciousness are contingent upon human behavior.
DETAILED>>This means to work more effectively by extensively drawing on ideas and wisdom from many people. Proposed by Zhuge Liang (181-234) during the period of the Three Kingdoms, it meant that a leader should offer many opportunities for others to speak up and listen humbly to all opinions, especially those which differ from his own. He should then consider all aspects of the issue and make a correct decision. He absolutely must not think himself infallible and acts arbitrarily. Pulling wisdom of the people will keep everyone motivated and ensure success.
DETAILED>>The concept of“self,”or“myself” is often contrasted with the concept of“the other,”or“others.”Referring to oneself, the concept sometimes suggests the will of the subject. Defining oneself based on this concept distinguishes one from others, and others from oneself. This distinction is an important aspect of the construction of order. However, too much emphasis on self and one’s own interests can easily lead to confrontation and conflict with others. Therefore, some people advocate that one should put oneself in another person’s position and care for others in a compassionate way; it has also been suggested that one should abandon oneself or completely break the boundary between oneself and others.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to the act of borrowing physical imagery to subtly convey the author’s personal message. It was a means of creating prose and poetry in ancient China. Xiang (象) can indicate either a physical image or more broadly any real or fictitious thing in the world. Yi (意) means “authorial intent” or “an author’s personal feelings and thoughts.” All this can be traced back to The Book of Changes, Zhuangzi, and The Book of Songs. In the former, hexagrams are used to symbolize various things, phenomena and events, as well as corresponding cognition, volition and feelings, thus creating symbolic devices. In the latter, real or fictitious objects and scenery are used to express feelings, thus creating analogy and association. Analogy here involves the use of a single image to show an explicit message; to adopt an image is to convey a message. Association, however, embeds an intricate and nuanced message in less defined objects and scenery; in this case there is no clear correspondence between an image and a message. In a sense, association can be likened to symbolism or metaphor. Although analogy and association, too, use imagery to convey meaning, they do so either because the author must be ambiguous if he wants to fully express himself or because he must be indirect in order to avoid embarrassment. The use of imagery to express meaning, on the other hand, aims to reveal wide-ranging sensations, feelings and sudden enlightenment through a rich reserve of imagery. It has remained a constant means of creating classic Chinese poetry, but it also indicates the spirit of ancient Chinese poets in daring to be innovative.
DETAILED>>Different attributes of the same object, such as solidity and whiteness, fulfill one another. This proposition was made by the later Mohist scholars. When you look at a solid white stone, you can only see its color, without knowing it is solid; when you touch the stone, you can only feel its solidity, without knowing it is white. Though solidness and whiteness cannot be perceived by a single sensory organ, the two attributes cannot be separated from each other, because they are possessed by the same stone. Later Mohist scholars used the example of the solid white stone to explain that attributes of any single object, though perceivable through different organs, are intimately associated with each other.
DETAILED>>When faced with gain one should first consider and distinguish whether the obtainment of gain is in accord with morality. This is a Confucian criterion for dealing with the relation between righteousness and gain. Between the pursuit of gain and the upholding of morality a conflict has long existed. Because people more often than not may covet personal gain and overlook morality, their actions may go against virtue and violate the law. Against this kind of situation Confucius （551-479 BC） advanced the stand of “thinking of righteousness in the face of gain,” proposing that people should strive for gain on the basis of the principle of morality. He who knows morality is a man of virtue, and he who blindly pursues gain is a petty man.
DETAILED>>The term means to observe and maintain the natural state of things. This notion first appeared in the book Laozi. The original meaning of su (素) is undyed silk; pu (朴) is unworked wood or timber. Laozi used these terms as analogies for people and objects in their natural untouched state. He believed that those in power should not try to influence people or things with ideas or demands that run counter to their natural conditions. Instead they should guide the populace back to its simple, natural origin. The term later came to mean “be unaffected by external factors and retain its earliest, pure nature.”
DETAILED>>By finding tiny signs of change, one is able to learn about trends and developments in the status of things. Tiny things are unobtrusive and hard to notice. But they may later cause very obvious consequences. Everything goes from being hidden to being conspicuous, and from small to large, and other chain reactions may occur in the process. So when doing something, we should fully understand and carefully handle its dynamics. We should see both the big picture and small details, get ready early to address any errors and problems that may arise, and ensure success of the undertaking. This also calls for gaining a good understanding of science.
DETAILED>>The term refers to knowledge derived from contact between externalities and one’s sensory organs such as the ears and eyes, in contrast to “knowledge from one’s moral nature.” Zhang Zai （1020-1077）was the first to differentiate between “knowledge from one’s senses” and “knowledge from one’s moral nature.” Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty felt that people acquired knowledge about the world in which they lived in two ways. Knowledge obtained from seeing and hearing was “knowledge from the senses,” which was an essential part of human knowledge. However, it was not a complete picture, nor could it provide an understanding of the original source or ontological existence of the world.
DETAILED>>This term means that when you see a person of high caliber, you should try to emulate and equal the person. Xian (贤) refers to a person of virtue and capability； qi (齐) means to emulate and reach the same level. This was what Confucius（551-479 BC） taught his students to do. The term has become a motto for cultivating one’s moral character and increasing one’s knowledge. The main point of this term is to encourage people to discover the strengths of others and take initiative to learn from those who are stronger than themselves in terms of moral qualities, knowledge, and skills so as to make constant progress. The term embodies the Chinese nation’s spirit for good, enterprise, and tenacious self-renewal.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a person acting courageously to do what is righteous. This fine tradition hailed by the Chinese nation since ancient times establishes that a man should be committed to upholding justice and shouldering social responsibility. Today, such acts are protected by law. Some administrative regulations provide that “acting bravely for a just cause” refers to an action of a citizen who fights to stop any on-site criminal acts or acts in an emergency in order to protect state property, public interests, people or their property from danger disregarding his personal safety. Whether in ancient days or today, acting bravely for justice is always a commendable ethical deed and also an important indicator of social progress.
DETAILED>>The Jian’an literary style, also known as the Han–Wei literary style, refers to theliterary style from the Jian’an era (196–220) of the Han Dynasty to the early Northern Wei Dynasty, featuring powerful expression of passion, anxiety, and indignation. The final years of the Han Dynasty saw political turmoil, incessant wars, and displacement of people. Leading literary figures like Cao Cao (155-220), Cao Pi (187-226), and Cao Zhi (192-232), Kong Rong (153-208), Chen Lin (?-217), Wang Can (177-217), Xu Gan (171-218), Ruan Yu (165?-212), Ying Yang (?-217), and Liu Zhen (?-217), as well as female poet Cai Yan, inherited the realistic tradition of the folksongs of the Han Dynasty. In their writings, they dealt with subjects such as social upheaval, the suffering of the people, and the aspiration of individuals, expressing their creative spirit and resolve to pursue a noble cause. Their works demonstrate strength, courage and determination to overcome great odds. With a melancholy and powerful style that was magnificent, unique, and distinctive of its age, Jian’an literature emerged as a unique genre and came to be viewed by later generations as an outstanding literary style, with Jian’an poetry particularly highly regarded.
DETAILED>>Reviewing the past helps us understand the present and predict the future. It is also said that “reviewing the past we understand the future” and “knowing the past we understand the present.” The Chinese word jian (鉴) can mean “mirror” and hence to “review the past” as if in a mirror, “understand the past,” or “gain knowledge of the past.” The lessons of the rise and fall of dynasties and states, the words and deeds of historical figures, as well as right and wrong, and good and evil, help govern the country and improve personal morality. “Understanding the present,” “reviewing the present,” or “understanding the future” means predicting the future based on the present. The rulers of antiquity saw it as extremely important to draw lessons from history in order to avoid past mistakes and justify their policies by making them conform to the needs of the country and people. The concept of “reviewing the past to understand the present” stresses both the practical significance of history and the historical depth of things present. It is similar to the concept that “past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future.”
DETAILED>>Mountains and rivers often inspire the literati in their literary conception. They use such landscapes in contrast to the imperial court. Thus, mountains and rivers symbolize a reclusive way of life. When ancient men of letters were unappreciated by the bureaucracy or when they wanted to escape from mundane duties and the crass pursuit of position and wealth, they might find their own meaning among mountains and rivers. They were not only the objects of poetic and prosaic description, but also where men of letters sought spiritual consolation. Mountain-and-river poetry first emerged between the Jin Dynasty and Song of the Southern Dynasties. Mountains and rivers became independent objects of artistic appreciation. Inspiration thus drawn adds to the aesthetic diversity of literary expression. The sight of mountains and rivers not only aids actual description of natural scenery in literary works, but also helps to chasten and elevate men of letters’ spiritual world, expand their horizons and broaden their minds. Such aesthetic activities raise them to greater heights in literary experience and expression.
DETAILED>>The Jiangxi School of Poetry was the first school of poetry and prose with a formal name in Chinese literary history. It took as its core tenets the notions of “turning a crude poem or essay into a literary gem” and “squeezing new life out of an old sponge,” as proposed by Huang Tingjian (1045-1105), a Southern Song Dynasty poet from Jiangxi Province. Members of that school devoted themselves to writing poetry with themes about scholarly life. They championed a vigorously “thin and stiff” style, stressed drawing on the skillful wording or remarkable ideas of their predecessors, and paid close attention to the techniques of writing to ensure that each word used in poetic composition can be traced to its origin. Huang’s notions differed from Tang Dynasty poets’ pursuit of impromptu inspiration, elegant subtlety of inspiring imagery as well as vim and vigor in poetic creation. The Jiangxi School’s influence spread across the poetic community of the Southern Song Dynasty, affecting even early modern-day poetic creation.
DETAILED>>This term, from The Book of Rites, means attaching great value to good faith and seeking harmonious relations, which was a key features of the society of “universal harmony” envisioned by Confucian scholars from the Warring States Period through the Qin and Han dynasties. They believed that in an ideal society, the land should belong to all its people, and there should be mutual trust, cooperation and harmonious relations between people and between states. “Keeping good faith and pursuing harmony” subsequently became an ethical norm advocated by Confucian scholars; it later also became an important Chinese cultural norm governing relations between people and between states.
DETAILED>>Here “first” expresses both the importance and priority of education. A summary of ancient works on this subject argued that education’s meanings include: nurturing individuals and their talents; forming good social mores; developing the country and its effective governance; discovering the inherent principles of things and making full use of their attributes in order to fulfill tasks – these are all inseparable from education. Therefore the promotion of education is one of the important functions of the state. This has been a consensus of the Chinese people, both past and present.
DETAILED>>Teachers and students improve each other. The ancient Chinese realized that teaching is not just a matter of teachers influencing students, but a two-way process of mutual interaction. In this process, teachers and students continuously make their own progress and improvements. It embodies the view that both teachers and students can benefit from their interactions, which is quite similar to the views of modern education.
DETAILED>>The term originally referred to the appearance of an artist who is concentrating on painting. It has been extended to mean an unrestrained state of mind free from external interruption when an artist is doing creative work. The book Zhuangzi describes a painter drawing freely with his clothes thrown open and legs stretching out. “To unbutton one’s clothes” is to expose one’s chest and arms; and “to sit with legs stretching out” indicates a casual posture while one is concentrating on painting. This term stresses the importance of a relaxed state and complete freedom of mind to the successful creation of quality artwork. This concept had significant influence on subsequent development of theories on calligraphy and painting in later generations.
DETAILED>>This metaphor is used to describe anybody or anything that is very beautiful both internally and externally. It's a term used in ancient times to critique individuals and literary works. It applies to an intellectually brilliant and morally upright person, or to a piece of prose or poetry beautiful in wording and rich in thought. A person with the look of gold and the texture of jade is a truly exceptional character. Prose and poetry comparable to gold and jade are literary works of the highest class.
DETAILED>>Be as loyal as one can be and serve one’s own country. The term “be loyal and serve the country” first appeared in The History of Zhou of the Northern Dynasties and The History of the Northern Dynasties compiled during the early Tang. This phrase is also associated to the famous general in the war of resistance against the northern Jin invasion, Yue Fei (1103-1142) of the Southern Song Dynasty. In The History of the Song Dynasty, compiled during the Yuan Dynasty, there is a mention that Yue Fei had the four characters jin zhong bao guo (尽忠报国) tattooed on his back. However, it is not specified as to who tattooed them. Towards the early Qing period, there were talks that it was Yue Fei’s mother who tattooed them, and it is followed by the story of Yue Fei’s commitment and obeisance to his mother’s command to be loyal to his outmost and render service to his own country unto death. It has the connotation of Confucian ideals of loyalty and filial piety integrated into one, and to this day, it is used by the Chinese as a typical expression for patriotism.
DETAILED>>Learning should contribute to good governance. Jingshi(经世) means governance of the country and society, and zhiyong(致用) refers to meeting practical needs. In the 17th century, thinkers such as Gu Yanwu (1613-1682), Wang Fuzhi (1619-1692), Huang Zongxi (1610-1695), and Li Yong (yóng, 1627-1705) argued that scholarly studies should be geared to meet current needs. They held that while interpreting ancient classics, scholars should expound their views on the social and political issues of their day, solve practical problems, enhance governance of the country, improve people’s livelihood, and promote social reform. This view stressed the practical value of knowledge and the practical responsibilities of intellectuals. It reflects the pragmatic character of traditional Chinese intellectuals as well as their concern for the well-being of the people and eagerness to shoulder responsibility for the whole nation.
This expression means one should both work diligently and be ready to mix with others. Ye (业work) originally meant studies; later, it came to mean one’s job or duty. Qun (群others) referred to fellow students and friends but it also included team members and society at large. Working diligently is about one’s attitude to work, while keeping good company is about one’s need to have proper social behavior. They are basic qualities required of an educated person or a person with a job, and are also the basis of a good and healthy society.
The aesthetic conception evoked by a poem or prose transcends what a physical object denotes, and a reader needs to perceive and appreciate the beauty of such aesthetic conception. Jing (境) here refers to an aesthetic conception created by a poem or prose, while xiang (象) refers to the image of a concrete object portrayed in such writing. Composed of words, a poem describes individual objects through which it evokes a coherent poetic conception beyond the physical appearance of such objects. This proposition was first put forward by poet Liu Yuxi （772-842）of the Tang Dynasty to express his understanding of poetry. He pointed out that words and images were concrete while aesthetic conceptions were abstract and subtle and therefore hard to describe. Liu’s proposition, namely, aesthetic conception transcending concrete objects described, marked an important stage in the development of the theory of aesthetic conception in classical Chinese poetry.
DETAILED>>This term, first mentioned inGuanzi, refers to being aloof in exercising governance. It is regarded as representing the doctrines of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi. This school of thought built on Laozi’s concept of non-action and held that a ruler should avoid using political power to interfere with the people’s daily life. Rather, he should be aloof so that the people would follow their own ways and practices and live and work in a natural way.
DETAILED>>One should always be on alert against potential danger in time of peace. All ambitious rulers in history hoped to maintain enduring stability. They often reminded themselves not to indulge in pleasure and comfort, but to conduct diligent governance, work hard to make their country prosperous, and resolve social conflicts in a timely manner so as to prevent them from developing into crises. This keen awareness of potential danger was a quality of accomplished rulers in Chinese history. This notion has also become a principle for modern enterprise management, and been adopted by common people in their pursuit of progress .
DETAILED>>This expression is used to describe prose and poetry lacking fluency because they fail to express their authors’ feelings freely, and instead borrow hackneyed allusions or phrases. Such writing is seen to lack flair, and comes across as unnatural and fragmentary. Juluan (拘挛) points to the lack of fluency as a result of artificial, rigid use of allusions. Buna (补衲) describes a failure to use appropriate allusions, often too many and out of keeping with the author’s own tone and style, leaving the writing like “a garment patched together with rags.” Zhong Rong (?-518?), using this term with its concrete image, vividly laid bare how some essayists and poets stifled their own works by alluding to a profusion of events and tales. He argued that prose and poetry should prize free expression of one’s feelings. This yields the questions of how to borrow one’s predecessors’ words flexibly and how to borrow from one’s predecessors’ messages creatively. In Zhong’s view, since many writers lack intellectual and literary talent, they understandably fall back on scholarly knowledge to make up for this inadequacy.
DETAILED>>To govern a state well, the ruler must select and employ those with outstanding virtue and talent. However, he must also be tolerant and inclusive toward people of ordinary virtue and aptitude. This is a successful combination of the traditional Chinese political concepts of “exalting the worthy” and “being compassionate.”
DETAILED>>This phrase, from The Analects, stands for extrapolating many things from one. It describes a state of learning that Confucius (551-479 BC) hoped his students would reach. The concept entails understanding the underlying principles of a single matter and using that knowledge to discern other matters that follow the same principles. Confucius used the metaphor of “one corner” and “three corners” to exemplify this process of knowledge extension, widely known as “drawing inferences by analogy.”
DETAILED>>The need to keep earthly affairs from heavenly affairs separate was first mentioned in The Book of History and the Discourses on Governance of the States. This was aimed at countering disorderly interaction between the people and the god and redefining the relationship between them. The ancient Chinese viewed sacrifices to the god and spirits as belonging to the heavenly realm while governance of the people was an earthly matter. Heavenly and earthly affairs ought to be managed separately by designated people so as to avoid communication with the god in an arbitrary and disorderly manner. This would maintain the authority of the gods and the order of the human world under the gods.
DETAILED>>A ruler has the duty to keep people together. According to ancient Chinese philosopher Xunzi (313?-238 BC), people by nature want to live in community.People cannot survive if they go against this nature. Keeping people together so that they form a community or a society is the fundamental duty of a ruler. This term defines the relationship between a ruler and the people, and implies the way in which a society or a state should be structured.
DETAILED>>A true gentleman is not like an implement that has a fixed form and its operation subject to its properties. This term originates from The Analects by Confucius（551-479 BC）. What Confucius meant was: first, an implement has its fixed form and properties. However, a gentleman's vision should not be limited by its form and properties; instead he should know all their basic functions and be a man of broad knowledge. Second, a gentleman should not stop at knowing only one type of skill for making implements. Instead he should explore all basic rules governing the operation of things, i.e., he should see beyond tangible things and master their intangible rules of operation. This perspective was accepted and further developed by later scholars. The concept still applies today. That is to say, one should not be satisfied in fulfilling his own duties only but should bear in mind the big picture, and better understand and abide by basic principles and universal laws.
DETAILED>>Even under pressure, a man of virtue maintains his moral values. Junzi or man of virtue originally referred to a ruler or a man of the aristocracy. Later, it came to mean any educated, upright person. Guqiong (固穷) means to adhere to one’s ideals and values even in times of difficulties and frustrations. The ancients believed that frustrated situations were ordeals for a man of virtue, in which he would not falter in his quest or touch the bottom line. This term summarizes the values of leadership, responsibility and integrity the political and cultural elites should retain in the face of difficulties and hardships.
DETAILED>>Relations between men of virtue are the opposite of those between petty men. The former are people with moral integrity and their relations are based on shared values. These relations may not seem close, but they are in fact strong and deep. The latter have low moral character and their relations are based on the pursuit of personal gains. These relations may seem intimate, but they will come to an end when nothing more is to be gained from them. Relations between men of virtue has been extolled by the Chinese since ancient times. This term distinguishes between moral integrity and pursuit of personal gains and between men of virtue and the petty men in the context of social interactions. It represents values of moral integrity possessed by men of virtue while censuring selfish pursuit of the petty man.
This term means to find out the truth of things, and act accordingly to succeed in what one does. Kaiwu (开物) means to reveal the truth of things and understand their intrinsic relations and rules. Chengwu (成务) means to use proper methods to do things successfully according to their intrinsic relations and rules. This was a perception and guide to action that the ancient Chinese learned from The Book of Changes and everyday life, which they used to understand the world, change the world, and serve themselves. This concept represents a fundamental principle of social science.
DETAILED>>Restrain your words and deeds to comply with social norms. This term comes from The Analects. It is the fundamental method Confucius（551-479 BC) recommended for achieving benevolence. According to Confucius, social norms should be the standard for cultivating benevolence. Externally, your words and deeds should be subject to social norms, but more importantly, you should restrain your own selfish desires in order to see, listen, speak, and act within such norms. Once you can “restrain yourself and practice propriety,” you will have achieved benevolence.
DETAILED>>This term means the happiness and contentment of Confucius(551-479 BC) and Yan Hui(a disciple of Confucius, 521-481 BC). The happiness of Confucius and Yan Hui is a mental outlook admired and advocated by Confucian scholars, especially by Song and Ming Neo-Confucianists. Most people do not want to put up with poverty, but poor material conditions could not keep Confucius and Yan Hui from maintaining a happy state of mind. The expression “Happiness of Confucius and Yan Hui” embodies an inner joy and happiness obtained from the transcending of material desires and from the profound understanding and quest for principles of heaven and ethical principles.
This refers to an independent mind that refuses to be restrained. The concept was proposed by the Ming-dynasty philosopher Wang Yangming (1472-1529), who devoted his entire life to “becoming a sage first and foremost.” Politically, he looked down on those in power and high position. Intellectually, he challenged the School of Neo-Confucianism advocated by Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi. The “unrestrained mind” he proposed had at its core a free and independent spirit, courage of forging ahead, and unconventional thinking. As an aspiration in life, it had a profound influence on many future intellectuals and scholars, igniting trends about individual emancipation in the late Ming Dynasty.
DETAILED>>Confucianism sees a close relationship between rites and music, both of which are indispensable for maintaining a country’s stability and social harmony. Rites are used to ensure restraint and differentiation, and music is used to ensure harmony and unity of mind. The belief that music harmonizes the voices of the people states the functions of music. As sounds arise from the minds of different people, huge differences in such voices reflect the richness of their mental activities. People in different situations who have different voices naturally differ in their emotions and feelings. When music is employed to harmonize voices, people in different situations will be influenced and moved by it, and this will lead to unity in public mood and eventual harmony in the entire society.
DETAILED>>Rejoice in complying with the way of heaven and recognize the limitations set by the mandate of heaven. This concept originates from The Book of Changes. The way of heaven regulates human affairs and its mandate defines the limit of human power. This is beyond human capacity to change and must be faced with calm, which man must understand and face with calm. While people are subject to regulation and limitation by Heaven and its mandate, they can cultivate their virtue and make great achievements through continuous efforts. That’s why people should rejoice in complying with Heaven and its mandate.
DETAILED>>This term means to ascertain the similarities and differences between things by classifying them. This phrase originated in The Book of Changes, which regarded everything in the world as belonging to different categories, and those with similar features being in the same group. Thus, one can tell the similarities and differences of things by grouping those that have common features. This concept also alerts people that they should be careful in interacting with people and should stick to like-minded people and those with moral integrity.
DETAILED>>When describing something, literary writing should be able to go beyond external appearance to capture the essence so as to reflect a high degree of reality. Zhuangzi （369?-286BC）considered that the essence of life lies in the inner spirit rather than the physical form. One should forget one’s physical existence and give full free rein to the spirit. The late Tang poet Sikong Tu (837-908) adopted this view and believed that poetic description should likewise focus on essence rather than form. This concept of poetic creation and critique was later applied in calligraphy and painting as well.
DETAILED>>Etiquette requires reciprocity and mutual benefit. It refers to contacts and interactions between individuals, between organizations, and between nations and implies equality and mutual benefit in interpersonal and inter-state relations. Sometimes, it also means that one should treat the other party in the way the other party treats you. It is similar to “Treating the other person the way he treats you.”
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This expression means to manage wealth properly and speak correctly. The ancient Chinese regarded these to be the two basic functions of power. “To manage wealth” means enabling wealth to be allocated in a reasonable and orderly manner; “to speak correctly” means making officials speak in accordance with norms and laws, then further guiding the words and deeds of the people to also accord with norms and laws. Once the allocation of wealth is reasonable and words and deeds accord with norms and laws, good order and good conditions will ensue throughout the entire country and society. There are similarities between this concept and what is described today as tangible and intangible development.
Being a supreme domain in terms of principle, li (理) exists in different things and manifests itself in different forms. “There is but one li, which exists in diverse forms” – this is an important way in which the Song- and Ming-dynasty thinkers viewed the forms in which li exists. As li has different meanings, its one-and- diverse composition is also interpreted in different ways. First, as the origin of universe in an ontological sense, li runs through all things. The li of each thing is not a part of li, rather, it is endowed with the full meaning of li. Second, representing the universal law governing all things, the universal li expresses itself in the form of different guiding principles in specific things. The li of each thing or being is a concrete expression of the universal li. The concept of li being one and same ensures unity of the world, whereas its diversity provides the basis for multifarious things and hierarchical order.
DETAILED>>This concept originated in The Book of Rites and Xunzi. Confucianism believes that human feelings need to be properly expressed. However, there are significant differences in the degree of human feelings. Rules should be established to govern the expression of human feelings based on a full understanding of their differences; and the rules for expressing people’s feelings should be developed on the basis of a moderate degree of these feelings.
DETAILED>>The ancient Chinese believed that good governance allowed people to lead a life of plenty. The ruler should be frugal, not extravagant or wasteful. He should make good use of the country’s material resources, reduce the corvée and tax burdens on the people so that they could live peaceful, prosperous, and happy lives. This belief was one of the sources of advocation for the people’s livelihood and socialist thinking in modern China.
DETAILED>>A country must estimate its annual expenditure in advance, and, on this basis, determine the amount of revenue to be levied on the people. This is known as “spend-and-tax.” It is a fiscal principle followed by all rulers since the Han Dynasty and contains the rudiments of budgetary thinking upheld by later generations.
Be Discreet as if Standing on Cliff Edge or Treading on Thin Ice
Be discreet and watchful as if one is standing on the edge of a cliff or treading on thin ice, both being precarious situations in which people need to exercise maximum caution to stay safe. One should observe the same discreet and care when it comes to adherence to ethics, rites and law as well as fulfilling one’s due responsibility. Any slackening may result in disastrous consequences. Hence the importance of being discreet and watchful.
DETAILED>>The Six Confucian Classics are The Book of Changes, The Book of History, The Book of Songs, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. An important proposition put forward by scholars of late imperial China was that those are all historical texts. According to these scholars, the Six Classics are all concerned with the social and political realities of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties rather than the teachings left by ancient sages. Zhang Xuecheng（1738-1801） of the Qing Dynasty was the representative scholar to systematically expound this proposition. This view challenged the sacred status of the classics of Confucianism and marked a self-conscious and independent trend in Chinese historiography.
DETAILED>>Confucian scholars believed that music interacts with both society and its political evolution; it also reflects the rise and decline of a state’s political strength and changes of social customs. If a state suffers from political corruption and social turmoil, its music and poetry will be full of resentment and anger. Hearing such music and poetry, the ruler must promptly review his governance and correct abuse of power so as to avoid downfall.
DETAILED>>The ignorant should be enlightened through education so that they will follow the right path. (One opinion is that this must begin from early childhood.) Meng (蒙 ignorance) here refers to the naivety of the young and their lack of knowledge. Yang (养) means education. Zheng (正) suggests the right path, the proper way, and upright conduct. This term, which underlies Chinese pedagogy, stresses the importance of function and value of education.
DETAILED>>This term describes a poetic work which has attained the sublime state of natural appeal. First put forward by late-Tang poet Sikong Tu (837-908) as a term of poetry discourse, it originates from the nature-revering aesthetic of Daoism and embodies a fundamental tenet of the theory of Chinese art. Sikong Tu championed the aesthetic principle of perfect naturalness and listed it as one of the twenty-four styles of poetry. Perfect naturalness is an ideal natural state of beauty created by poets, and also a conscious exertion sought by them in poetic composition. This notion stands in contrast to the imitation theory in Western aesthetic tradition. It seeks to achieve oneness between the poet and all lives in the universe, and at the same time maintains the individual creativity above all other lives.
DETAILED>>This idea was first put forward by Zhang Zai （1020-1077）of the Northern Song Dynasty, who held that people and things are all created by the vital force of heaven and earth, and thus are similar in nature. He advocated love for all people and things in the world, and his view transcended the old anthropocentric viewpoint and aimed to reach harmony between oneself and other human beings as well as between oneself and other creatures and things. It is the same as the idea that a true gentleman has ample virtue and cares for all things. This notion is an important part of the School of Principle of the Song and Ming dynasties.
DETAILED>>The underpinnings of social livelihood and well-being are fundamentally shaped by hard work. This perspective sends a clear message to those in positions of power to acknowledge the sweat, struggle, and resolve of everyday people. They should neither trivialize people’s effort to make ends meet nor add to their load. Instead, they should provide necessary material conditions, appropriate policies, and institutional guarantees for people’s livelihood. In parallel, this perspective underscores the value of hard work – a quality ingrained within the very essence of the Chinese ethos.
DETAILED>>This term means that the people are the essence of the state or the foundation upon which it stands. Only when people live and work in peace and contentment can the state be peaceful and stable. This saying, which first
The notion of the people’s will being the foundation, or the “roots,” of government comes from a dialogue between a king of the Shang Dynasty and Houfu (in a text found on bamboo slips of the Warring States Period). Houfu said to the king, “The people’s will is like the roots of a tree: they support the leaves.” By that he meant that public support was the foundation of the state, and without it the state or political power would perish. The ancients believed that a government was legitimate so long as it “followed the mandate of heaven and complied with the wishes of the people.” people’s wishes were a prerequisite of heaven’s will, and only if the state complied with the people’s wishes, would it enjoy lasting stability. This notion is identical to the concept that "people are the foundation of the state".
DETAILED>>Group collaboration is possible only when the individuals within it are clearly ranked and there is a social order. For Xunzi（313？-238 BC）, the ability to “work together” is what distinguishes humans from animals. Without social restraints, humans will follow their innate desires and fight over things, causing disruption within the group. That is why there must be appropriate rules for people of different ranks, with clear rights and responsibilities to guide proper conduct, which will limit discord and build collaboration.
DETAILED>>This term encapsulates an age-old Chinese belief, rooted in the value of collective wisdom, which advocates extensive consultation with the public on important issues in governance. As stated in the ancient Chinese classic, The Book of History, when addressing important issues in governance, a ruler should not make decision purely by himself. Instead, he should take a more inclusive approach to decision-making. A ruler should not only give full consideration to the issue involved himself, he should also consult with advisors and the public at large. This approach would help ensure that the decision made represented the consensus of wider society and was therefore rational and enforceable. This concept, viewed in the context of modern times, is seen as representing an early emerging value of democracy in China’s political history. Sometimes this concept is also used to refer to the process of decision-making that occurs within the lower house in the two-house parliamentary system in the West.
DETAILED>>The term, which first appeared in the Chinese classic writing Zhuangzi (Zhuangzi 369 ?-286 BC), means that one can easily see the existence of the dao with no need to rely on verbal explanation or on logical analysis. Later it was used for literary creations and in the field of connoisseurship. The concept emphasizes the need for one to transcend audio and visual perceptions and logical analysis, and do away with any interfering thoughts or external objects in order to attain true appreciation of art. The concept highlights the importance of seeking intuitive insights unaffected by utilitarian considerations in literature and art.
DETAILED>>Only when a country has accomplished unity within can it be able to consider expansion and development outside. “Unity within” means that people live in amity and are united as one. “Expansion without” originally meant to start a war against a neighboring state. Now it is used to mean external development in order to gain more benefit. Sound internal development and unity in a country are prerequisites and guarantee for external development. This is applicable to a country, an enterprise, or an organization. It demonstrates that the Chinese people set great store on their internal development and uphold the principle of peace.
DETAILED>>The Northern and Southern schools represent two distinctive styles of ancient Chinese calligraphy. Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) and Zhao Mengjian (1199-1267) of the Song Dynasty, and Chen Yixi (1648-1709) and He Zhuo (1661-1722) of the Qing explored the differences of these two styles. Later, Ruan Yuan (1764-1849), also of the Qing Period, addressed this issue with clarity and at depth in his “On the Southern and Northern Styles of Calligraphy.” In his view, both styles originated with Zhong Yao (151-230, from late Han to the early Three Kingdoms Period) and Wei Guan (220-291, the Three Kingdoms Period), while Suo Jing (239-303, the Western Jin Dynasty) was the founder of the northern style. The Northern School features calligraphic inscriptions on stones, which displays a primitive simplicity of the official script of the Han Dynasty. The southern style, on the other hand, is mostly found on paper and, rather than following the seal script of the Qin or the clerical script of the Han, adopts the regular script of the late Han, the semi-cursive script of the Western Jin or the cursive script increasingly popular over a much longer period of time. It is charming and beautiful.
This term means a poet uses the techniques of analogy and stimulation to depict the form and the external appearance of things. He takes in internal connotations and the principles of things, thus linking originally different things and combining them. Nirong (拟容comparing appearances) attaches importance to specific forms for bixing (比兴 analogy and stimulation). While quxin (取心 grasping the essence) aims to get at the spirit and the essence of things, it therefore attaches importance to internal connotations and to the principles contained in the form of things. The combined meaning is that by giving expression to the form of things with a certain meaning, one may imply and express his thoughts and feelings. This notion appeared in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It developed from niwu lixiang (拟物立象 create images through object imitation) in The Book of Changes. Liu Xie (465?-520) first used this term, mainly to explain that analogy and stimulation are inter-connected but are different: Analogy here means “comparing appearances.” Staying true to the principle of things is most important, and anything far-fetched should be avoided. Stimulation means “grasping the essence,” sensing the abstruse and being connected with the meaning.
DETAILED>>This refers to the process in which an artist creates his unique artistic representations of concrete objects, found in the natural world and social life, by mimicking, refining, and synthesizing their perceptual images. This concept for artistic creation comes from The Book of Changes, which uses images of hexagrams to symbolize everything in nature and their rules of change. The Book of Changes has inspired literature and art to make use of concrete artistic images to interpret and describe nature and human beings themselves. This mode of thinking has exerted a far-reaching influence on literary and artistic theories in ancient China, nurturing the birth of the theory of imagery.
DETAILED>>Once the bird hunt is over, the bow should be put away. This alludes to the fact that once a war is over, the wartime powers given to civil and military officials should be revoked or diminished. In ancient China, this often occurred when the country shifted from a state of war to one of peace; to a certain extent, it ensured the security of the central government and the civil and military officials, and was conducive to the resumption of the country’s normal and stable governance. In later years, this expression came to mean that after a task was achieved, those who had worked toward its success were abandoned.
DETAILED>>This refers to various human emotions and desires. The term “seven emotions” comes from The Book of Rites, referring to happiness, anger, sadness, fear, love, hatred, and desire. The term “six desires” first appeared in Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals, referring to human desire for life, desire against death, and the desires of human organs such as ears, eyes, mouth and nose for sound, color, taste and aroma. Later, the term “seven emotions and six desires” came to be used to describe people’s emotions and desires in general. Such emotions and desires, being naturally born with people, should be released or satisfied as appropriate. But they should not become excessive.
DETAILED>>First used in “A Letter of Response to Li Yi” by Han Yu (768-824), this concept means that when a writer is virtuous and well-educated, his work will be rich in content and have a powerful message with the use of appropriate language and expressions. To make writings expressive, harmoniously rhymed and inspirational, their authors should have a lofty character, Han Yu aimed to learn the ancient thoughts by gaining a full understanding of ancient texts. He believed that a strong inner aspiration and a noble character are as important as linguistic expression. If one has moral integrity and is free from distraction, well-educated, passionate,and has an active mind, then he can use all his knowledge, life experience and creative experience to write good articles, But this does not mean that Han Yu ignored the form of language. Appropriate language requires mastery of the rules and techniques of writing. He emphasizes, however, that writing should deliver a good message. Good self-cultivation creates an appropriate and natural form of linguistic expression, thus enhancing the writing’s appeal.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a powerful appeal in writings surpassing that of ancient writers. Here qi(气)has a wide range of meanings, from an essay’s powerful appeal to a writer’s charisma or moral integrity. Wang(往)describes a channel through which such a vital force passes. Li(轹)literally means a wheel crushing something when rolling over it and metaphorically an overwhelming advantage over something. This is how Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties, in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, described the powerful appeal of Qu Yuan’s (340?-278? BC) works. Writers of later generations invariably sought to create a powerful appeal in their writings. The concept is also used as an important concept in literary criticism.
DETAILED>>This concept means a painter should be good at association in thinking in artistic conception and creation. He should give full rein to his imagination and connect and reconstruct a variety of source images and materials so as to create a great painting in both image and spirit. “Association in thinking” stresses imagination, selection, connection and conception. While the subject matter and source materials come from reality, the painting is by no means a replica of it. “Association in thinking” makes it possible for a painter to reconstruct his thoughts and emotions in the image of his work. “Inspirational creation” stresses the aesthetic effects of a good painting that derives from “association in thinking.” A good painting should not only create a good image, but also enable the viewer to appreciate the underlying message. Such a painting is one of inspirational creation. “Association in thinking” and “inspirational creation” together constitute an inseparable process of artistic creation. This concept is the earliest definition of artistic conception and aesthetic appreciation in China; it later became an important principle underlying the theory on Chinese painting.
DETAILED>>This concept originates from The Analects. While the word qiao (巧) or “artful”itself typically denotes cleverness or skill, and ling (令) or “pleasing” generally signifies virtue or goodness, both adopt negative connotations in the context of the phrase “artful words and a pleasing demeanor.” The concept refers to the intentional use of flattering or deceptive language and expressions to manipulate or mislead others. Confucius (551-479 BC) explicitly stated that treating others with “artful words and a pleasing demeanor” contradicts the principles of benevolence and virtue.
DETAILED>>This concept represents the four artisanal techniques applied to various materials. Qie (切) signifies crafting animal bones, cuo (磋)indicates refining ivory objects, zhuo (琢) alludes to shaping jade, and mo (磨) pertains to grinding stone materials. In antiquity, people used animal bones, ivory, and diverse types of stones to create objects. These raw materials required the process of “cutting, polishing, carving, and grinding” to transform into refined items. Starting from The Book of Songs, the ancients used the processes of object crafting as metaphors for moral and intellectual cultivation. They believed that individuals also needed to undergo mutual “cutting, polishing, carving, and grinding” to attain deep knowledge and virtuous character.
DETAILED>>To be benevolent and friendly towards neighboring countries was first mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals. The ancient Chinese used this notion as an important guiding principle in handling relations with neighboring countries: Countries should respect and be friendly to each other, and jointly foster a benign and stable environment. This is in the fundamental interests of all countries and their people. In terms of relations among countries, the pursuit of benevolence and good-neighborliness emphasizes friendship and peace between countries and is similar to the idea that if the lips are gone, the teeth will be cold. This concept also emphasizes moral values as a basis of good-neighborly relations, that is to say, both sides should be guided by moral values in handling their relations. The concept, as applied to international relations, is one of both principle and pragmatism. It embodies the Chinese nation’s pursuit of harmonious relations with other nations based on moral values.
DETAILED>>This term refers to verses original in theme, sincere in feeling, distinctive in image, and refreshing in diction. “Refreshing” stands opposed to ornate phrases and excessive literary quotations, and indicates both fresh and natural expressions as well as elegant style and subtle aesthetic conception. What “exquisite” indicates is not that the wording itself is resplendent, but that there is complete freedom from vulgarity, and that the imagery is sharp with real sentiments. As a poetic term, it refers to the general feature of a poem, including its linguistic style.
DETAILED>>When feelings surge up in people's hearts due to inspiration from external objects, they will find expression in poetry and music.
Poetry should express a poet's grief while not violating the aesthetic rule of proper grace. First raised by renowned Southern Dynasties literary theorist Zhong Rong (?-518？), this is an important criterion used to judge the merit of poetry. Proceeding from an artistic perspective, Zhong deemed poems by Cao Zhi (192-232) as "having a mixed quality of grace and sorrow." He stressed that a poet should guard against excess emotion and obey the rule of proper grace. As for how to understand the notion of "graceful sorrow," there are two somewhat different interpretations. According to the first, the emphasis of that notion is on sorrow; namely, Cao's poems seek to voice suppressed grief, despite a restrained, proper style of expression. The second interpretation says that "grace" and "sorrow" here are of equal weight, insisting that Cao's poems are both aggrieved and graceful. No matter what, Zhong's theory enhanced Lu Ji's (261-303) idea that “poetry springs from emotions” to a new level and elaborated on the traditional theory that “feelings should be controlled by ritual propriety.
DETAILED>>This concept is first found on the bamboo slips unearthed from a tomb of the State of Chu at Guodian Village, Hubei Province. According to the belief that the mandate of heaven or the way of heaven rewards the good and punishes the evil, virtuous individuals will be rewarded and become prosperous, while those who act immorally will be punished and live in poverty. The concept breaks the necessary connection between one’s moral character and their state of poverty or prosperity, indicating that one’s state of poverty or prosperity is influenced by their circumstances. At the same time, the limitations of circumstances should not affect a person’s moral cultivation, as moral cultivation should not aim for prosperity.
DETAILED>>This term means to thoroughly explore the fundamental nature and pervasive laws of humanity and all things, which includes the exploration of natural phenomena, cosmic laws, and local events. We must fully understand how all things are connected, so that we can contribute to all things flourishing in their roles. Neo-Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty took this conception as a fundamental means to understand the world, to cultivate one’s morality, and to know in depth the principles of heaven. Wang Yangming (1472-1529) held that laws and nature are not two different things. To explore the laws of things means to find out their nature. Ancient Chinese believed that to understand the world and oneself, and to reform the world and improve oneself are a process of interaction and unity. Only when such process advances can the harmony between humanity and all things be accomplished.
The term means to seek points of agreement while maintaining difference of opinion. Scholars of the Warring States Period such as Hui Shi (370?-310? BC) and Zhuangzi (369？-286BC) believed that differences and antitheses between all things are relative, and that commonalities exist within differences. From a dialectical perspective, differences between all things are relative and there is always the possibility of one thing transforming into its opposite. The Confucian culture represented by Confucius (551-479 BC) stressed that in relations between people and between states, “harmony without uniformity” should be achieved through accommodation, provided that differences between the parties are recognized. The greatest possible consensus between all sides is ultimately reached by acknowledging the existence of differences or setting them aside. To achieve such consensus, people should recognize the diversity of cultures and values and not seek absolute unanimity or forced agreement; and they should look at problems as much as possible from the perspective of others. This approach subsequently became an important principle underlying China’s handling of foreign relations.
DETAILED>>This term means that an essay dwells too much on the luxurious life of a monarch to the neglect of the author’s original intention of admonishing him. In the Western Han Dynasty, writer Yang Xiong (53 BC-AD 18) held that although Sima Xiangru (179?-118 BC) always ended on a note of satirical criticism in his prose-poetry, he devoted too much space to the description and glorification of a monarch’s luxurious life, bringing readers’ attention to the grand achievements of the empire and feeding the monarch’s arrogance, thus impairing the admonitory effect. Therefore, Yang criticized Sima Xiangru for such a style of writing.
DETAILED>>The expression means to be sociable with others in a moral and ethical way, but not to form a clique with selfish interests. Qun (群) here means the majority, and associating with it means seeking the common good. Budang (不党) means not to form small factions or cliques purely for selfish reasons or private expediency. A similar expression is “be close but not cliquish.” This is a principle of political ethics, and those who have power and are responsible for governing should follow it by working for the public good.
DETAILED>>People’s physical constitution, emotions and ethics should closely correspond with the structure and order of Nature. The theory that “Humanity should be aligned with Nature” was put forward by Dong Zhongshu(179-104BC). He believed that all things between heaven and earth and their operation had their own intrinsic structure and order. A person’s body, feelings, thinking, acts, and ethics are all in correspondence with the structure and order of Nature, particularly in numbers. According to this theory, humans are but a duplicate of Nature. Dong’s idea provided the basis for mutual interaction between people and Nature.
DETAILED>>Life and death are of the utmost importance. “Life” refers to the lives of people, and “heaven” means the most important matters. The meaning of this phrase is similar to the expression that “life is of supreme importance.” The ancient Chinese regarded human beings as the most exalted form of life in the world. Life is the most precious because each person only has one life. Therefore, in judging cases, using military force, practicing medicine, etc., special caution must be exercised when lives are at stake. This exemplifies the humanistic Chinese spirit of respecting people and respecting life.
DETAILED>>The term is used to describe efforts to teach people essential ideals and principles of renwen (人文) and guide them to embrace goodness with the aim of building a harmonious – albeit hierarchical – social order, according to the level of development of a civilization and the specifics of the society. Renwen refers to poetry, books, social norms, music, law, and other non-material components of civilization. Hua (化) means to edify the populace; cheng (成) refers to the establishment or prosperity of rule by civil means (as opposed to force). The concept emphasizes rule by civil means, and is another expression of the Chinese concept of “civilization.”
DETAILED>>This term aims to explain how human culture arose. It stands in contrast to what is known as “heaven’s ways” or “earth’s ways,” the former referring to laws governing the movement and change of heavenly bodies and weather, while the latter to that of topographic features and directions of mountains and rivers. Since humans came into being with their spiritual pursuits and thoughts, human culture has thrived and prospered. Human culture, as encapsulated in this term, is taken to mean education in etiquette and music, laws and regulations, and especially outcomes of creative endeavor such as art, literature, and philosophy. A close inquiry into these origins can help to clarify the essential character of art and literature, and enable us to better grasp the laws of their development. However, dispute remains as to the precise meaning of the term. The most influential view was raised by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties. He held that human culture had its origins in taiji, namely the supreme ultimate. But scholars continued to argue about the exact meaning of taiji. So the origin of human culture should perhaps be interpreted more broadly as the sum total of feelings and thoughts of our prehistoric ancestors who grappled with their existence between heaven and earth. Such feelings and thoughts were primitive and related closely to the natural world, so it can be safely said that those earliest inhabitants of the earth understood the universe and life in a more original way than people of today.
DETAILED>>The country will be harmed if the people harbor grievances. “People’s grievances” refers to dissatisfaction or even anger among the people over government policies. Broad dissatisfaction or anger among the general public indicates there may be problems of one sort or another in the country’s governance. If the people cannot live or work in a settled environment, social disorder can easily arise and lead to uprisings, which would not be good for the country. Under such circumstances, those in power or administration must make timely policy adjustments and work hard to ease the people’s feelings, so as to ensure stable and durable governance. This is of the same line of thought as the saying “a country with no resentful people is called a strong country,” and it can also be regarded as an example of the concept of “people first.”
DETAILED>>The term means to have love for the people, and cherish all things in the world. Here wu (物) includes plants and animals, while ai (爱) implies using them in a measured and appropriate way. This was first proposed by Mencius （372？-289 BC） who differentiated natural emotions as: a love for close family, a broad compassion for other people, and a sense of cherishing for plants and animals. The love could be close or distant, but a person of virtue always begins with love of close relatives, which then extends to other people and eventually to all things in the world. Though this feeling starts within the family, it should extend beyond it, even beyond the human race to include plants and animals, to become a broad love. The goal is to achieve harmony within oneself, with others and with nature. Zhang Zai’s （1020-1077）concept that “all people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions” is very similar.
DETAILED>>Renren (仁人) means benevolent and moral people. Zhishi (志士) refers to one with lofty aspirations, resolve and integrity. This expression usually refers to a patriotic person who works for his people and country. Such individuals have a strong sense of right and wrong, and will sacrifice themselves willingly for a just cause. Their actions and spirit are much respected models for later generations.
DETAILED>>The benevolent person has a loving heart. Renzhe (仁者) refers to benevolent and virtuous people or people with loving hearts, who have tremendous courage, wisdom, perfect moral character, charm, and charisma, and who love and care about others. Confucianism holds ren (仁) as the highest moral value. The basic meaning of ren is loving others, and to love others, one should first show filial piety to one’s parents and respect one’s elder brothers, and then extend love and care to other family members, and eventually to everyone else in the world. Mencius （372？-289 BC） synthesized and upgraded this notion into a theory to be applied to the governance of a country. He proposed that a person of virtue should love and care about first his loved ones, then other people, and finally everything on earth. Confucianism believed that love could be extended to people in a certain order, but that benevolence has general value, which is both the foundation and the goal of building a harmonious and good-will society.
DETAILED>>The one who is benevolent is invincible. The benevolent refers to a ruler who has the virtue of benevolence or to a state with benevolent rule. In terms of political affairs, benevolence manifests itself as benevolent governance based on love and care for the people, use of penalties with restraint, lighter taxes, and benefiting the people to the greatest extent possible. In this way, the ruler will gain the support of the people and achieve unshakeable unity of will among his subjects and himself, so that the state will be invincible. The underlying principle is that a state’s source of strength lies in winning the hearts and minds of its people; if only the people are cared for, will the state be able to draw strength from this source.
This concept was first raised by Yan Hui（521-481 BC）, one of Confucius' (551-479 BC) disciples. He provided a subjective source for benevolence. According to the Confucian School, a man of benevolence is sure to cherish himself and then extend his love to others. In return, he is sure to win love from others. This is reciprocal. Many people advocated this concept since then, though they might not necessarily belong to the Confucian School. The essential idea is that one should not be selfish but should have self-respect and be self-reliant, doing his best to serve the people and the country.
DETAILED>>Appoint a person to office or position based solely on merit or outstanding ability. In other words, the criteria for giving authority to a person do not involve any kind of personal relationship. Wei (唯) means “solely”, and xian (贤) means a combination of ability and moral rectitude, an ideal much sought after by the ancients. Those with these qualities are able to observe and uphold social norms and be leaders of social progress. To appoint such wise and capable people to positions of power is the basis and guarantee of good governance. Such qualities, much revered in ancient times, continue to be the basic standards for selecting, training, managing and appointing public officials today.
DETAILED>>Reflecting often on what one does – this is a way of self-cultivation of virtue advocated by Confucianism. This school of thought holds that as moral integrity is established with one’s efforts of self-cultivation, one needs to constantly examine his words and deeds as well as what he has in mind as a fundamental way of improving himself. Zengzi（505-436 BC) , in particular, stresses that one should everyday reflect many times on whether he has performed duties for others, treated others with good faith and whether he has reviewed what he learned to see if there is any room for improvement.
DETAILED>>The expression denotes respect and love for one’s home and elders. In ancient times, people planted mulberry trees around their homes to raise silk worms, and catalpa trees for the wood. Gradually, these came to symbolize respect for parents and ancestors, and later extended to include their home and birthplace. Such homesickness and love of one’s native place are some of the deepest and most enduring human emotions, giving people a sense of identity and belonging. These emotions have been extolled by men of letters throughout the ages, and they have become an important manifestation of love for one’s country.
DETAILED>>Coined by Confucius (551-479BC), the concept of sacrificing one’s life to preserve virtue complete did not mean that he did not value human lives, rather he believed that beyond the preservation of life, people should have a higher pursuit, that is, to preserve their virtue. According to him, for those who aspire to develop or preserve virtue, when they have to choose between life and virtue, they should choose the latter.
DETAILED>>Ancient Chinese believe that if the state and society are to be well-governed, what is good must be loved and what is evil must be despised in order to create a positive social environment. Good and evil should be identified and rewards and punishments should be meted out in accordance with the law. In ancient times, the good meant being reasonable, meritorious and law-abiding, whereas the evil meant being unreasonable, lawbreaking and committing crimes. Rewards and punishments were important means for running the military and the state, and were important powers exercised by rulers. Rewards and punishments are demonstrative in nature. Rewards are given to encourage the good while punishments are meted out to punish the evil. Therefore, rewards and punishments must be meted out appropriately to the right persons in accordance with regulations. Only this will create a healthy and uplifting social atmosphere. Rewards and punishments help people to develop integrity and tell good from evil.
DETAILED>>This term originally means awarding those who deserve it, and punishing those who must be punished. Later on it was used to mean that one must be strict, fair, and transparent in governance. Ancient Chinese believed that honors and punishments were important principles and methods in governing a state or an army. These measures can play an exemplary role. The purpose of giving award is to encourage people to do good things, and the purpose of meting out punishment is to bring wrongdoers to justice. Awards and punishments encourage people to follow the rules, and are used to distinguish merit from error and good from bad. When applied properly, awards and punishments avoid favoritism and partiality and urge people to better themselves.
DETAILED>>Foiling the enemy’s strategy is an important principle proposed by Sunzi the ancient military strategist. In his view, war is waged at different levels, all of which have a significant impact on the outcome. Armed attacks will do great damage to both sides, so they should be avoided if at all possible. Those who are good at leading armies should be able to use stratagems to eliminate the threat of enemy attack in advance or clear the obstacles to their own armed forces to achieve their strategic goals at minimal cost.
DETAILED>>The greatest virtue is just like water, nurturing all things without competing with them. This term was first used by Laozi to advocate the belief that a virtuous ruler should govern with gentle and accommodating qualities as demonstrated by water. He should assist and provide for people just like what the water does, instead of competing with them for resources. Later, this term came to mean that people should nourish all things as water does and try their best to help people without seeking fame or profit. It also refers to human virtues such as endurance for the sake of achieving a noble goal and modesty.
DETAILED>>A great healer can treat the ills of a country. shangyi (上医) is a skillful, first-rate doctor; “to heal a country” is to treat and eliminate its various ills. Originally this expression was used to describe how a great statesman resolved the various problems and flaws in a country’s governance, in the same way a patient's sickness was treated. It now also describes how the expertise of a great doctor can help a country prevent and control major illnesses (such as infectious diseases), thereby ensuring the well-being of the people. The term encompasses two basic concepts: first, there are parallels between healing a country and healing a disease; second, in addition to possessing outstanding skills, a doctor must have both a desire to save people and a concern for the country.
DETAILED>>This belief is advocated by Mencius（372？-289 BC）. He holds that upholding righteousness is an essential attribute of a dignified man, and without it one would lose his moral standing. Life is precious, but survival should not be the only thing that is important in life. When one faces a choice between saving life and upholding righteousness, he should give life to uphold righteousness.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the creative process through which a writer interacts with subject matter and gives free rein to his imagination. During the process, he projects onto real objects his mental sensations and imaginings, and endows them with an aesthetic tone. Conversely, his imaginary sensations and imaginings are given concrete expression by real objects. The free interaction between mind and subject matter, transcending the limitations of space and time, creates a superb artistic work depicted in language. The term originated in the words of “taking advantage of the circumstances to let your mind wander freely” in Zhuangzi. Later, this idea was systematically developed by Liu Xie（465？—520） in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons during the Southern Dynasties to describe imaginative contemplation. The term stresses the importance of interaction between the mind and the poetic subject matter as well as free imagination in the process of artistic creation. It demonstrates the process of thinking in artistic creation and succinctly summarizes the underlying features of aesthetic appreciation and freedom in artistic creation.
DETAILED>>This term is an example of Confucian literary thinking. Confucian scholars believed that music gave expression to people’s thinking and emotions, so a country’s music reflected whether government integrity was upheld, whether people enjoyed prosperity, and whether the social atmosphere was amiable and sincere. According to Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, during his diplomatic mission to the State of Lu in the Spring and Autumn Period , Prince Jizha of the State of Wu learned about the governance of various vassal states and regions at the time by listening to their music performed by the people of Lu. This should be the origin of the term “assessing governance by listening to music.” This concept first emerged in the Qin and Han dynasties, which removed the boundary between art and government and made artistic aesthetics a part of public life. It gave expression to Confucian literary thinking which was based on governance and ethics and added a political and ethical dimension to the ancient Chinese literary and art theory.
DETAILED>>It was thought in ancient China that a person matured through five stages: broad study for collecting information and acquiring knowledge, close examination for identifying problems and resolving doubts, careful reflection for absorbing and mastering knowledge, clear discrimination for developing concepts and reaching conclusions, and earnest practice for putting knowledge into practice and developing character. These stages can be roughly divided into three areas: learning, reflection, and practice. “Careful reflection and clear discrimination” describes the stage of reflection between learning and practice. It can also be said that study and reflection on the one hand and study and practice on the other complement each other, while reflection is a deepening and heightening of learning, a prerequisite for practice, and a key link between learning and practice.
DETAILED>>One should be discreet at the beginning and all the way through to finish. Many factors determine success or failure. Generally speaking, discreetness and perseverance are the sure way to success, while negligence and laxity invariably lead to failure. When approaching a successful conclusion in an undertaking, people tend to lose drive and things may fall apart at the last minute. Therefore, we must act with discreetness, a concept that has its root in earnestness. Earnestness means handling things with great care.
DETAILED>>This
term means to hold obsequies in a proper way and cherish the memory of
those long deceased. This
is what Zengzi (505-436 BC)
believed one should do toward the deceased. As someone passed away, with the passage of time, people close to him would forget the care and love shown to
them by the deceased. So people should follow due procedures at a funeral to express their grief
over the deceased
and memorialize the
altruism, virtue and achievement of the dead even long after his death. Zengzi believed this would increase care and love among the people.
Music itself should not be divided into joyful music and sad music – it can only accommodate or inspire feelings. This idea was first raised by Ji Kang (223-262 or 224-263) of the Three Kingdoms period. Ji held that music should be separated from emotion and aspiration. Emotion and aspiration, he said, are controlled by the soul and show themselves in many musical forms. The feelings or aspirations expressed by a musician are different from those evoked in the listener’s heart. The relation of music to the governance of a country is that rulers should first know more about the livelihood and aspirations of ordinary people and then moralize them accordingly. Musicians can incorporate truths, wholesome aspirations, and noble ideals into harmonious and beautiful music, linking music to certain implications cementing among the audience a broad consensus so as to exert positive impact on the popular belief, improve social customs, and in the process further strengthen messages implied in the music. This theory of non-differentiation between joyful music and sad music urges literary critics of later generations to examine a combination of factors such as historical changes, social customs, the inner worlds of authors, and the psychological reception of audiences, and to understand the essence and functions of art and literature more rationally.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the poetic creation and achievements during the Kaiyuan (713–742) and Tianbao (742–756) reign periods of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, as compared with poetic writing in the early Tang, mid-Tang, andlate Tang periods. This period, marked by good governance, prosperity, and stability, was a golden era for the great Tang empire before it was disrupted by the An Lushan and Shi Siming Rebellion. There was cultural infusion between the north and south, and travels to and from the outside world were frequent. All this made it possible for artistic creation to blossom. Of all the four periods of poetic creation, i.e., the early Tang, the prime Tang, the mid-Tang, and the late Tang, the prime Tang was the shortest, but its artistic attainment was most remarkable. This period produced legendary poet Li Bai (701-762) and poetic genius Du Fu (712-770) as well as a galaxy of outstanding poets such as Zhang Yue (667-731), Zhang Ruoxu, Zhang Jiuling (673 or 678-740), Meng Haoran (689-740), Wang Wei (701?-761), Gao Shi (700?-765), Cen Shen (715-770), Wang Changling (?-756?), Wang Zhihuan (688-742), Cui Hao (?-754), Li Qi (?-753?)，and Wang Han. These poets extolled natural scenery, expressed noble aspirations, and depicted real life. Their writing style was both vigorous and unrestrained. They were broad in vision and were adept at using fresh, natural language, and their poems were full of power, vigor and an enterprising spirit. Their poems represented the highest attainment in classical Chinese poetry. This period also saw the thriving of the natural landscape school and the frontier school in poetry writing.
DETAILED>>To wage a war, one must have a legitimate cause, just as we ought to have such a reason in doing all things. The term has two meanings. The first is that moral justification is a source of strength when waging a war. With moral justification, the troops will have high morale and strength in fighting. Without it, it would be difficult to command the troops. The second meaning is that war must not be waged without a just cause. Greed or anger should not be allowed to lead to militarism and aggression. The underlying notion of this concept is that war can only be fought with a just cause, which represents the spirit of civilization.
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Enlightenment through education was a notion first put forward by Xunzi (313?-238 BC). He believed that people by nature desire external things. However,If unrestrained, this natural desire will lead to conflicts between people and plunge society into chaos. Therefore, they need to be enlightened through education to both meet their desires and make them understand and observe ethics and etiquette. The basic form of enlightenment is guiding their desires, words and deeds through teaching.
DETAILED>>An army must be united if it wants to conquer the enemy. Shi (师) means army, ke (克) means to overcome the enemy and be victorious, and he (和) means men and officers are united and are of one mind. Coordination and cooperation are needed not only within the combat forces, but also among all other military units and forces. Similar expressions include “triumph comes when leaders and followers share the same goal,” and “to overcome the enemy one must first be united.” The modern equivalent is “unity gives great strength.”
DETAILED>>This term suggests that when there is a good cause to use military force, the troops will be high in morale and valiant in fighting. The word shi (师) here is a general term for all military forces and operations. The word zhi (直) means a just cause. The word zhuang (壮) means powerful troops. The Chinese nation has always been wary of waging wars, believing that a war should be fought only for a just cause and that an army fighting for such a cause will have high morale and win the war.
DETAILED>>Sanmei (三昧) originates from the Sanskrit word samādhi, meaning “the mental state of being firmly fixed on a single object” or “meditative absorption.” Samadhi used to be Buddhism’s important way to engage in self-cultivation. Later, it took on the meaning of “the gist or true essence of things.” This Sinicized phrase thus made its way into the fields of poetry, painting, and calligraphy and began to be used in the sense of a “knack,” a “trick” or a “secret.” The whole term, “the key to poetic creation,” was first put forward by the Southern Song poet Lu You (1125-1210) in his poem “Poetic Lines Scribbled Down on the Night of the First Day of the Ninth Lunar Month.” Over time, it became used to refer to a burst of inspiration, with words pouring forth like the flow of a spring, in poetic creation. In that poem, Lu You describes how his initial effort to learn to write poetry failed in his youth and how life in the army at Nanzheng, hectic, vibrant, and exciting as it was, thoroughly changed his poetic style and brought forth great ideas. The way Lu You wrote poetry shows that poetry has its origins in life. The inspiration of poetic creation can be drawn solely from the creative activity of reflecting and portraying life through poetry.
DETAILED>>The Revolution in the Circle of Poets was a cultural movement in early modern China. A part of the Revolution in the Literati Circle, it aimed to reform poetic expression. Liang Qichao (1873-1929) was the first one to champion this movement. In his work “My Days in Hawaii,” he argued that modern poetry should draw on the style and format of classical poetry, but it must also develop new artistic conception and expressions to depict contemporary life. He opposed the obscurity and formal restraints of classical Chinese poetry, arguing that without a revolution among poets, poetry in China would wither. He said that new poetry should be simple in language, convey new ideas, and disseminate modern values to enlighten people in China. Liang Qichao, Huang Zunxian (1848-1905), Yan Fu (1854-1921), Xia Zengyou (1863-1924), Tan Sitong (1865-1898), and Qiu Weixuan (1874-1941) all wrote poetry in modern Chinese and published their writings in newspapers and magazines. Generally speaking, verses written under the influence of the Revolution in the Circle of Poets did not have high artistic value. Rather, they were old in style but new in content, yet they did not make smooth reading. However, their creative spirit later gave rise to truly vernacular new poetry.
This term originally referred to the absence of a universally accepted interpretation or explanation of The Book of Songs. It was first put forward by the great Han Dynasty Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu (179-104 BC). Later, it came to be used as a general term in literary criticism, which suggests that as the result of the changing historical conditions and different life experiences of readers there bound to be varied interpretations or explanations of the same literary work. The idea that poetry defies any attempt at fixed interpretation derived from the traditions of the Spring and Autumn Period, when poetic lines were recited to express one’s view, stance, or emotion. To justify themselves politically or diplomatically, politicians at the time would quote from The Book of Songs, yet without bothering to find out the exact meaning of the quotes, sometimes even distorting their meaning. Confucian scholars of the Han Dynasty interpreted The Book of Songs in several different ways due to different academic orientations. Dong Zhongshu raised this idea to provide theoretical support for such divergence. As a view of literary theory, it is concerned with different readers’ divergent interpretations of a text and its aesthetic values. This view argues that as poetic terms are suggestive, ambiguous, and intricate, readers should not settle for a superficial understanding of a poem. Instead, they should delve into the poet’s heart and develop their own understanding, interpretation, and insight of his poem. The argument that there is no fixed interpretation of poems is valid, because it shows that poetic language can be ambiguous in meaning and that interpretations can therefore vary. However, this does not mean that one should interpret a poem too freely.
This refers to the way to judge the artistic quality of calligraphy. Wang Sengqian (426-485) of the Southern Dynasty and Zhang Huaiguan (dates unknown) of the Tang Dynasty held that the primary criterion for appreciating calligraphy is whether it features a spiritual liveliness; the concern about the way of how to use the brush and ink is secondary. Both of them valued a calligraphic work's spiritual verve and structural integrity and despised an excessive obsession with superficial decorum and practical usefulness. This preference represents a major criterion for appreciating ancient Chinese calligraphy.
DETAILED>>This term means handling things correctly according to realities of the situation. The term was originally used to describe the rigorous attitude of ancient Chinese scholars who paid great attention to acquiring solid facts in order to arrive at the correct understanding or conclusion. Later, it has come to mean expressing ideas or handling matters according to reality. It is a methodological principle on cognition and a fundamental principle underpinning behaviors and ethics. Basically, it calls for behaving in a practical, realistic, and honest way.
DETAILED>>According to the renowned historiographer Liu Zhiji （661-721）of the Tang Dynasty, those who study and write history must have three strengths, namely, the ability to compose historical works, rich knowledge of history and historical materials, and deep insight that enables them to analyze and evaluate history. Liu believed that deep insight in analyzing and commenting on history was the most important of the three qualifications.
DETAILED>>In his essay “The Peach Blossom Spring,” Tao Yuanming
This means adapting one’s approach to changing conditions. The saying is from the chapter “The Five Vermin” in Hanfeizi. According to this work, many changes in social conditions occur in response to changing times, and people should adjust their approaches accordingly to keep up with new developments instead of just following past practices. Most scholars of the Legalist School held similar views. This argument was a source of inspiration for those who pursue reform and modernization endeavors.
Since ancient times in China, every school of thought has regarded love a core value. They all maintain that people must have general goodwill or sympathy for others, whether they know each other well or not, rich or poor. This is not only an important principle for handling interpersonal relations; it can also extend to become an international principle of opposing violence and raw power. Like the Confucian principle of putting oneself in another person's position, the principle of treating others the way you treat yourself champions benevolence, equality, and tolerance.
DETAILED>>This term describes the act of painting on a multicolored feather. Metaphorically, it means a love of ostentatious adornment in writing. Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC), by referring to the imaginary act of putting a pictorial pattern on a colored feather, contended that Confucius (551-479 BC) placed too much emphasis on education, thus killing the natural goodness of human beings and impairing the simple yet beautiful state of human society, confounding his original aspiration. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties used this same example to hint at the harmful convention of excessively pursuing formal beauty in writing and other art forms at the price of natural beauty. He adopted the Confucian position of “matching form with substance,” and set forth the principle of unity between rhetoric and meaning, thus forming the classic aesthetic of “balanced harmony.”
DETAILED>>This term expresses the idea that giving away a fish is not as good as teaching one how to fish. The meaning is that rather than giving something away it is better to teach the method of obtaining it so that people can get what they need through their own efforts. It implies that once an objective is established, the method of achieving it becomes most important, and that the effective way of helping and managing people in the long term is to encourage them to be self-supporting.
DETAILED>>The essence of poetry is to convey feelings and aspirations through fine wording. Fine wording involves the proper arrangement of words and sentences, while the voicing of feelings and aspirations constitutes the material content of poetry. Neither of these aspects should be neglected in favor of the other. The term taken as a whole reflects the Confucian view on the relationship between form and substance; that is, writing should achieve a balance between these twin demands. If the writer pays too much attention to form, his writing will sound supercilious. If he is over mindful of substance, it will sound crude and devoid of artistic merit. Therefore, a good combination of form and substance should be the primary principle of poetic creation.
DETAILED>>The expression, which comes from The Analects, means only recording the ideas of ancient scholars without writing one’s own views. It represents the Confucian (551-479 BC) attitude towards the views of ancient scholars: by recording them, one showed respect for such views and aimed to pass them down. But one could also express one’s own views in the course of recording through choice of quotes depending on one’s own need or interpretation.
DETAILED>>The ancient Chinese believed that virtuous men followed the will of heaven in establishing a political regime and becoming its sovereigns; hence their success came from the mandate of heaven. This thought is similar to the Western notion of the divine right of kings; but it also emphasizes the wishes and will of the people, or people-centered thinking. In ancient China, this phrase was often used in praise of the founding of a new dynasty, and the implementation of major social reforms to justify its legitimacy.
DETAILED>>This expression comes from The Analects, and is what Zixia (507-? BC), a disciple of Confucius (551-479 BC), said he had heard from others. Destiny is beyond one’s control, and ancients believed that the length of a person’s life was predestined. Confucian thinking held that humans should face life and death calmly as they are predetermined by destiny. What people should do is to constantly improve themselves morally during their life time.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to the four tones (the level tone, falling-rising tone, falling tone and checked tone) and the eight rhythmical errors. The conscious use of these tones and the avoidance of these errors were metrical norms for poetry creation proposed by the literati of the Qi and Liang reigns of the Southern Dynasties, such as Shen Yue ( 441-513 ). Chinese tones in even earlier times remain controversial in academic circles. By the time of Qi and Liang, however, Zhou Yong, Shen Yue and others for the first time defined the four tones of the Chinese language - the level tone, falling-rising tone, falling tone, and checked tone. In addition, Shen Yue proposed pairing the five sounds with the four tones. Thereafter, the literati have actively used them in their poetry to perfect the sound and mood. Shen also found that improper use of the four tones would lead to eight rhythmical errors, such as pingtou (平头overlapping tones at the beginning), shangwei (上尾repeated tonesat the end), fengyao (蜂腰 the use of characters with the same tone which makes the poem resemble what he likened to a wasp's waist), and hexi (鹤膝 the use of characters with the same tone which makes the poem resemble a crane's knee). These errors in poetry should be avoided as much as possible. “Overlapping tones at the beginning" refers to the first and the sixth characters or the second and the seventh characters in two related lines in a five-character poem having overlapping tones. This was considered to have violated the rules. “Repeated tone at the end" refers to the fifth and the tenth characters in two related lines of a five-character poem having the same tone. Several other errors list similar rhythmical problems.The concept of four tones and eight rhythmical errors was a major advancement in the theory of Chinese phonology, but the concept was too restrictive to use in practice. Therefore, it was opposed by many people at the time because they believed that it hindered the natural beauty of rhythms and rhymes in poetry creation. In the Tang Dynasty, the literati refined the concept to form the theory of level and oblique tones, cutting the requirement of four tones to a requirement of two, making the composition of poems easier, thus greatly improving the rules and forms for the so-called modern-style classical poetry. Among these people Du Fu's poetry creation is a perfect model.
DETAILED>>People should behave according to their own position and situation. This expression is said to originate in The Doctrine of the Mean. People in different circumstances have different duties to perform and different rules to observe. They can give play to their innate morality by proper performance of their duties. Therefore, people should not be motivated by external gain to pursue the status enjoyed by others; rather, they should be content with their own life and tap their full potential given the situation in which they find themselves.
This term originally referred to water, which, without a fixed shape, flows along the contours of objects or land. Song Dynasty writer Su Shi (1037-1101) used it to describe literary writing that was smooth and free like water, showing both the writer’s creative power and his adherence to the laws of nature and human society. This style of writing endeavors to achieve harmony between a motif and expressive techniques and to merge emotion, landscapes, events and moral lessons into an aesthetic whole. This term may have been influenced by the Daoist beliefs that “great virtue is like water” and that “water is the most exact equivalent of the way” as well as the Buddhist faith in following karma. It also gives expression to an artist’s personality, artistic attainment and capability.
“Three friends of winter” refer to the pine, bamboo and plum. In traditional culture, certain human characteristics are attributed to plants and animals based on their natural qualities. The pine and bamboo remain green all year round even in the coldest season, and the plum blooms in early spring when snow and frost are still frequent. These three plants are cold resistant and retain their beauty even in harsh weather, just like good friends keep each other’s company during an icy winter. This term is often used to refer to loyal and steadfast friendship, and also represent the fine qualities of high-mindedness and detachment.
DETAILED>>This term means not to publicize one’s strong points but make up for one’s weak points. Tao (韬) means a sword sheath or an arrow box. Guang (光) means light, indicating one’s capability and talent. Taoguang (韬光) means not to advertise one’s strong points, and never boast about or show off one’s talent or skills. Yang (养) means cultivation while hui (晦) means dimness, indicating weakness or disadvantage. Yanghui (养晦) means to strengthen one’s cultivation and offset one’s weaknesses. This term shows that the Chinese people uphold modesty, restraint, self-cultivation, and self-enhancement.
DETAILED>>Good reputation is spread through writing, as is great accomplishment. Here, both teng (腾) and fei (飞) stand for “soar high” and “spread far.” Sheng (声) alludes to “fame achieved through virtue,” while shi (实) refers to “accomplishment, especially that made by pursuing the correct way.” Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties championed the “three highest attainments in life” as advocated by ancient Chinese sages, namely setting moral examples, performing great deeds, and spreading noble ideas. He regarded spreading noble ideas, or literary writing, not only as a means of promoting virtue, but also a virtue in itself. Thus he elevated the act of writing to the height of virtue, on a par with the two other attainments in life.
DETAILED>>“The qi(vital force) of heaven and earth” denotes the two types of qi, an element that constitutes all things corporeal and flows between heaven and earth. Both shapeless, the qi of earth and the qi of heaven respectively possess the opposite attributes of yin and yang. Their movement follows the law of the change of yin and yang. The interaction between the two types of qi leads to the day-and-night cycle, the succession of the seasons, and the occurrence of such heavenly phenomena as wind, rain, thunder, and lightning. The interaction also determines how all the things are generated and changed.
DETAILED>>Literally, this term means the rules and orderliness of heaven and earth. According to Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, Zichan (?-522 BC) of the State of Zheng proposed the concept to explain the essence and justification of rites. Zichan believed that the movements of heaven and earth followed eternal rules that created a consistent and rational order. Man too should imitate this in word and deed in an orderly, rational, and proper way. The constraints that rites place on human behavior, and the resulting social ethics and harmony are all manifestations of these laws of nature. The expression later came to mean anything that is proper, or any reasoning that is justified.
DETAILED>>This term first appears in The Book of Songs. It means that there is no one who can forever remain a recipient of the bestowed supreme power by the Ruler of Heaven. The ancients believed that the heavenly order determined to whom the supreme royal power belonged. However, the choice of the recipient of such a conferment was not forever. Replacement of the Shang Dynasty by the Zhou Dynasty was brought about by the change of the recipient of Heaven’s bestowal of the mandate to rule. However, the change of the recipients of the mandate followed a fixed principle: such bestowal could fall only on a ruler who was virtuous. Once he had lost virtue, the mandate to rule would be withdrawn from him. Therefore, the concept of the change of the recipient of Heaven’s mandate served as a warning to the ruler, who must constantly cultivate his virtue in order to keep his rule.
DETAILED>>Humans and Nature respond to each other. This theory was put forward by Dong Zhongshu (179-104BC) , who had inherited his predecessors’ thinking and believed that things of similar nature could respond to each other. According to him, humans are a duplication of Nature, therefore they respond to each other. Changes of Nature will affect human beings and their activities. Human actions and words, as well as the order or disorder of human society are reflected in Nature by astronomical signs. If the ruler of a state has said or done something treacherous, calamity or unnatural phenomenon may occur to reflect this. Dong Zhongshu, with this theory as his basis, tried to persuade the ruler to govern virtuously by citing historical calamities or unnatural phenomena.
DETAILED>>The term represents a world outlook and a way of thinking which hold that heaven and earth and man are interconnected. This world outlook emphasizes the integration and inherent relationship between heaven, earth, and man. It highlights the fundamental significance of nature to man or human affairs, and describes the endeavor made by man to pursue life, order, and values through interaction with nature. The term has different ways of expression in history, such as heaven and man are of the same category, sharing the same vital energy, or sharing the same principles. Mencius（372？-289 BC）, for one, believed that through mental reflection one could gain understanding of human nature and heaven, emphasizing the unity of mind, human nature, and heaven. Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty sought to connect the principles of heaven, human nature, and the human mind. Laozi maintained that “man’s law is earthly, earth’s law is natural, and heaven’s law is dao.” Depending on a different understanding of heaven and man, the term may have different meanings.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a world outlook and a way of thinking which hold that heaven and man are different. This explanation was first put forward by Xunzi（313？-238 BC）, who did not believe that human morality and the order of human society emanated from heaven. He argued that heaven and man each had a different role and that they should not be mixed. Temporal changes of heaven and earth as well as the occurrence of seasonal changes in temperature and rainfall all belonged to the domain of heaven. They had their normal path, unrelated to human affairs, and were beyond the reach of human power. On the other hand, man’s morality and order in the world belonged to the realm of man. People should be responsible for moral development and social order. Only by making a clear distinction between heaven and man could one develop his abilities on the basis established by heaven, without overstepping into a domain where man was unable to exert his power.
DETAILED>>The world is a public realm and therefore belongs to all the people. Tianxia (天下), which literally means everything under heaven, used to refer to the monarch, state power, or the nation; later it extended to mean the whole world. In the narrow sense, gong (公) refers to figures with both integrity and competence, while in the broad sense it refers to all the people of a country, or everyone in the world. This term has two meanings. The first is that the position of a ruler is not the private property of just one person or his family, but rather belongs to all people of virtue and ability. Hence, the throne should be passed on to people according to their merit rather than through bloodline. The second meaning is that a country does not belong to a single individual or family, but belongs to the public. This is a people-centered vision, which opposes hereditary rule and believes that people with virtue and competence should be selected to exercise power. Ancient Chinese held this to be the foundation and guarantee for people to enjoy a happy life and realize universal harmony. In modern times, it evolved into a key concept calling for overthrowing autocracy and realizing democracy and later into a longing for an ideal society.
DETAILED>>All the people under heaven are as close as one family. “All under heaven” here refers to all the people both in a country and in the whole world. True love transcends blood ties and territorial boundary. This term is akin to such expressions as “universal love” and “all are brothers within the four seas.” True love also transcends humankind and extends to everything in the world, as expressed in such phrases as “one should be kind to people and love things” and “you should consider all people as your kin, and all things as your own kind.” The term demonstrates the Chinese vision of caring and compassion for all.
DETAILED>>Changes in nature follow constant rules. This concept comes from Xunzi (313?-238BC). But this idea has an even longer history. The ancient Chinese believed that changes in nature followed certain rules. More importantly, the rules or laws governing nature are constant and are not affected by changes in human affairs or humans’ attitude towards nature. Therefore, the ways of nature constitute a constant background for human life and exert a constant influence on human beings and their affairs. However, different scholars have different understandings of the specific content of the rules of nature and its relationship with human beings.
DETAILED>>This term means to reach the same goal through different routes. Coming from The Book of Changes, the term has two meanings: First, different schools of thought and different people have different understandings of social order and values, and the ways of governance they advocate also vary, but their goals are the same – stability and prosperity of society. Second, though things under heaven manifest themselves in different ways, they all belong or rely on a common ontological entity.
DETAILED>>Toutaobaoli, the Chinese original, literally means when you give me a peach, I will also give you a peach in appreciation. The term generally refers to reciprocating a gift in kind as an expression of mutual courtesy. What is important is not the gift itself but the goodwill conveyed by the gift as well as the desire of forging lasting friendship with the other party. The expression implies the principle of equality and mutual benefit. It is a figurative way to state a principle of “returning good for good,” which is a positive aspect of the notion of reciprocity. This principle applies to relationships big or small, ranging from those between individuals to those between states.
This term means to infer others’ thoughts with one’s own. It is exactly what Confucianism advocates as tolerance toward others, which is an important principle or method of caring for the people and cherishing all things. In the first place, such thinking believes that people basically share a common spirit. On this basis, tolerance and benevolence need to be advanced. One should show consideration for others by putting oneself in their place, and understand others by walking in their shoes. We should never do unto others what we would not want others to do unto ourselves, and whatever we would wish for ourselves, we should also help others to achieve.
DETAILED>>The people of all the countries in the world are like members of one family. “Love of people” is the core of the humanistic Chinese spirit. It is not limited by family, race or national boundaries; rather, it is a concept of a common value which extends to each individual. The term tongbao (同胞) has long exceeded the scope of blood relatives and grown to mean people of the same ethnic group or country, particularly those who share a common language and cultural heritage. It may even go beyond the boundaries of ethnic groups and countries and refer to the entire human race. Humans and all things share a common origin – they are created by heaven and earth; those born as people should all the more be friendly with each other and see others as family. We might say that these concepts of equality and broad love are the shared spiritual riches of the human race.
DETAILED>>Humans and all things are one. The ancients believed that humans and all things were produced by heaven and earth, and that despite belonging to different categories, they ultimately followed the same fundamental principle and had a commonality or consistency, just like the parts of a person’s body; humans must acknowledge this so they won’t lose their pre-eminence over all things. In this way, Confucian scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties reinterpreted the concept of “benevolence,” and also this is how the idea of eco-civilization is being explored today. This idea, like the concept that “all people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions,” transcends the limitations of human-oriented thinking and achieves a high degree of unity and harmony between our own selves and other human beings as well as between our own selves and everything else.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the universal principle that governs all things. The ancient Chinese believed that things are all governed by their own underlying principles. This term refers to the intrinsic nature of objects and humans; and it also refers to patterns that govern both the movements of things as well as the words and actions of humans. For some scholars, the focus was on how different things are governed by different principles, so that these principles represent their diversity. Others, however, believed that even though principles governing different things vary, ultimately they are the same in nature, making the universal principle governing everything.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the music of a state that is about to disintegrate. Later, it also refers to decadent and immoral music. The Confucian view was that music of a state on the verge of collapse tended to be dejected and demoralizing. As the downtrodden people endured immense suffering, their music and poetry were invariably full of sorrow and bitterness. If the ruler failed to wake up to the reality, the fall of his state was imminent.
DETAILED>>A great ruler who conducts benevolent governance will enrich his people and unify the country. The implication of this term is that a great cause can succeed only when it is supported by the people. Therefore, a visionary leader must give top priority to the interests of all the people, not just the interests of some people, still less those of some individuals. This term echoes the thinking of “people being the foundation of the state” and “keeping wealth with the people.”
Only effortless ease is complete and thorough ease. This is a Daoist concept on physical and mental freedom, which had an impact on ancient artistic creation. According to Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC), people fail to achieve peace because they lack inner strength, not because of external factors. lf the mind is full of distracting thoughts, always drawing a clear-cut line between all things and weighing gains and losses, then the soul will be ill at ease even though external conditions maybe comfortable. Only if all attempts at differentiation are abandoned and all distracting thoughts eliminated, can true ease and tranquility be achieved, and even unpleasant external circumstances be resisted. This thought enlightened the concept of aesthetic freedom in ancient literature and art.
The expression originates from a line in Song-dynasty Emperor Huizong’s (1082-1135)“Palace Poems,”which reads,“Forget your worries, enjoy leisurely tranquility playing the game of go.”In other words, the game of go allows a person to forget his worries. Emperor Huizong indulged himself in many leisure pursuits. He displayed great talent in them, and took special delight in the game of go. With his encouragement, the game became very popular and produced quite a few national champions, making the Song Dynasty a celebrated era for the game. A grand master in that time was an individual called Li Yimin who was appointed by the Emperor as an on-call game official in the Imperial Academy. He compiled a renowned game manual entitled A Manual to Forget Worries and Enjoy Leisurely Tranquility, using the words from the poem by Emperor Huizong. It is the earliest book on the game of go known to exist in China today. Many men of letters in ancient China loved music, board games, calligraphy, and painting. Therefore, there were many writings on board games.
DETAILED>>The term refers to learning for the purpose of self-cultivation. Confucian scholars view learning as a means of improving our moral life. By studying the classics and rules of etiquette, and by learning from the sages, we may constantly improve our morality in order to develop an ideal character. Therefore, learning is a process for self-cultivation and is practiced for our own good. The pursuit of learning is not to make a show of our knowledge or virtuous conduct in return for benefit.
DETAILED>>When explaining benevolence and virtue to his disciples, Confucius (551-479 BC) put forward the concept that "one should readily practice benevolence and virtue." He stressed that the accomplishment of benevolence and virtue was not driven by external norms. Rather, one should restrain himself and follow the right conduct. This means one should believe in benevolence and virtue and willingly act in compliance with them.
DETAILED>>Governance of a state should be guided by virtue. Confucius （551-479 BC） expounded this philosophy – which his followers in later eras promoted – on the basis of the approach advocated by the rulers in the Western Zhou Dynasty that prized high moral values and the virtue of being cautious in meting out punishment. Governance based on virtue stands in contrast to rule by use of harsh punishment as a deterrent. It does not, however, exclude the use of punishment, but rather highlights the decisive role of virtue in governance, and regards moral edification both as the fundamental principle and the essential means for achieving good governance.
DETAILED>>In ancient China, people recorded events by writing on bamboo or wooden strips. They used boiled leather thongs threaded through little holes made on those strips to bind them together into a book according to a certain order. According to theRecords of the Historian, Confucius（551-479 BC） avidly readThe Book of Changesin his old age. He used the book so often that the leather thongs binding the wooden strips broke three times. Later on, this term is used to describe a person who reads diligently.
The term literally means to get the doors, windows and even the whole house fixed before it rains. Choumou (绸缪) means “wrap and bind” with an extended meaning of “repair.” The term is a metaphorical way of saying to get ready for any unexpected events beforehand. It does not mean to prevent accidents from happening, but to prepare for possible occurrences rather than reacting to something “unexpected.” It requires that people should not be limited by what they see in the current situation, but be able to anticipate possible changes or future situations and get prepared ahead of time. It is similar to the concepts “think forward and deep” and “prepare for an accident before it happens.” The term underscores proactive behavior on the part of people or the changing nature of an overall dynamic situation.
DETAILED>>This term means to review what has been learned and to gain new understanding and new insights. It also means to obtain guidance in the present moment by recalling the past. Wen (温) means to review； gu (故) means knowledge that has been acquired in the past； xin (新) means new and unexplored knowledge. Our predecessors had two main approaches to interpreting this term. According to one approach, reviewing the knowledge acquired in the past and understanding new knowledge should be understood as two actions taking place at the same time. In other words, one gains new knowledge in the course of reviewing the old. According to the other, reviewing the knowledge acquired in the past should be viewed as the basis and precondition for understanding new knowledge. Without reviewing, one would not be able to understand new knowledge. Furthermore, the new knowledge is a development of the old on the basis of rejecting stale and outdated ideas of the past. Today, what this term offers is more than a simple methodology for studying, but rather a fundamental mechanism for the development of an individual, an enterprise, an organization, or even a country. The term expresses a dialectical logic between the old and new, past and present, known and unknown, and inheritance and innovation.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the mild and broad-minded manner with which the Confucian classic, The Book of Songs, edifies people. Confucian scholars during the Qin and Han dynasties believed that although some poems of The Book of Songs were satirical and remonstrative in tone, it still focused on persuading people instead of just reproving them. Most of the poems in the book were moderate in tone and meant to encourage the reader to learn to be moderate and honest. Encouraging people to be mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded is a manifestation of Confucian doctrine of the mean, and being fair and gentle is an aesthetic value, which is also a standard for literary and artistic style that stresses the need for being gentle in persuasion and for edification.
DETAILED>>The Revolution in the Literati Circle, which took place in early modern China, was a cultural movement aimed at transforming classical Chinese language and literature. In 1899, Liang Qichao (1873-1929), frustrated by the failure of the Reform Movement of 1898, saw an urgent need to reform and uplift the national character of the Chinese people. He used writing to introduce new ideas from the West, hoping that this would help enlighten and educate his fellow countrymen and change their ways of thinking. One target of this revolution was the prose of the Tongcheng School, which was founded by some natives of Tongcheng County, Anhui Province in the early years of the Qing Dynasty. Another target was Pianwen, rhythmical prose characterized by parallelism and ornateness. This revolution aimed to merge classical oral Chinese and classical written Chinese into one form and use a new style and wording to convey modern Western concepts and ideas. Liang Qichao created a new style by employing many colloquial expressions and the grammar of foreign languages. His writings were full of emotion. The Revolution in the Literati Circle shared goals of the Revolution in the Circle of Poets and the Revolution in the Circle of Fiction Writers: to promote a reform in the style of writing. It enhanced the popularity of vernacular Chinese, inspired the literary revolution of the May 4th period (1919), and paved the way for vernacular poetry and prose to gain dominance in the Chinese literary writing.
DETAILED>>This term is a Confucian statement about the relationship between literature and ideas. Wen (文) refers to literary creations and works, while dao (道) refers to the ideas conveyed by literary works. Writers and philosophers in ancient China explicated these ideas as Confucian thought and ethics. Han Yu (768-824), leader of the mid-Tang-dynasty Classical Prose Movement advocating the prose style of the Qin and Han dynasties, and some others proposed that the purpose of writings should be in line with the classics of the ancient sages as well as promote them. Zhou Dunyi（1017-1073）, a neo-Confucian philosopher of the Song Dynasty, expounded the principle of literature serving as a vehicle of ideas. He concluded that literature was like a vehicle while ideas were like goods loaded on it, and that literature was nothing but a means and a vehicle to convey Confucian ideas. This theory was valuable because it stressed the social role of literature and emphasized that writers should know what they were writing about to ensure that their works conveyed correct ideas. However, it underestimated the aesthetic value of literature and later met opposition from thinkers and writers who emphasized the value of literature per se.
DETAILED>>This concept stems from The Book of Changes. “Disappearance and reappearance”signifies the cycle of departure and return pertaining to a journey, but is also extended to the abstract meaning of disappearance and reappearance of things or states of things. In the hexagram context of The Book of Changes, tai (泰) hexagram has qian (乾heaven) at the bottom and kun (坤earth) on top. This hexagram is situated at the junction of qian and kun, the pivotal point where shifts are imminent. Though qian starts from the bottom, it ultimately returns to the top, and while kun begins from the top, it eventually returns to the bottom. The concept that nothing that disappears fails to reappear uncovers the law of transformation for things or states of things.
DETAILED>>Zhi (治) here means a state of good governance; wuwei (无为non-action) does not mean doing nothing, but instead not acting in an over-assertive manner, inother words, not imposing one’s will. In Daoist thinking, this expression means the ruler must respect the natural conditions of those governed (the people); he must not interfere unduly in their lives but allow them to follow their own desires and ways to fulfill themselves. Through “non-action” everything will be actually achieved. The focus is “Dao operates naturally.” In Confucian thinking, “non-action” means the ruler governs by influencing and motivating his subjects through his moral example and achievements, not through decrees, or coercive punishments, so that they act without being ordered, and social harmony is achieved. The focus here is something similar to “teaching people essential ideals and principles and guiding them to embrace goodness so as to build a harmonious social order.” Both the Confucian and Daoist schools of thought advocate governance through respect for the intrinsic nature of people and society, not through too much interference or imposition.
DETAILED>>Those who do not act excessively may rise to ultimate leadership. Derived from the book Guanzi, this principle echoes the Daoist notion of wuwei (无为), which does not mean taking no action at all, but refraining from taking excessive action. The concept captures the idea of not acting against the natural flow of events; it is a non-assertive approach that respects the inherent momentum of beings and situations. Here, di (帝literally “to become an emperor”) means to reach the peak of success and endeavors. This term carries two implications: Firstly, great success doesn’t necessarily spring from imposing one’s will upon the world. Rather, it often flows from harnessing the evolving dynamics of things. Secondly, those who are in power should exercise governance with restraint rather than exerting excessive control.
DETAILED>>This term means choosing to be useless to realize the preservation of life. Originating in Zhuangzi, choosing to appear useless is a way advocated by Zhuangzi (369?-286BC) for preserving one’s life. He said that very able people are often required to shoulder many responsibilities, which will result in greater difficulties and dangers harmful to their physical and mental health. Zhuangzi concluded that only by giving up the desire to advance or become useful, showing instead how useless one is, can one avoid the perils of the human world and therefore preserve one’s life.
DETAILED>>People with no covetous desires stand upright and maintain integrity. Yu (欲) refers to all sorts of selfish and covetous desires. Gang (刚) means fairness, justice, integrity, and forcefulness. Wuyu (无欲) does not mean that people should not have any desires, but rather, people should not harbor any selfish or covetous desires. The term tells us a basic principle for people to follow in conducting themselves, and especially for officials in handling office affairs, that is, no temptations should ever sway anyone. One must always conduct oneself properly without seeking to gratify personal interests； one must always seek compliance without seeking fame or wealth； and one must never harbor any greed. This is the way for one to stand upright, firm, and fearless. Like towering cliffs, one may stand tall and indestructible.
DETAILED>>Wu Daozi of the Tang Dynasty executed his brushstrokes in a curvy and graceful manner, so that sashes on the people in his paintings seem flutter in the wind. Compared with Gu Kaizhi (345?-409), Wu's painting is more nuanced and lifelike. He used his brush with perfect ease and fluency. His works are dynamic and vivid, presenting a distinctly new style and aesthetic effect, reflecting the development of the art of painting.
In the Spring and Autumn Period, Wu and Yue were neighboring states which were hostile to each other. Wu and Yue people being in the same boat is a metaphor for overcoming old grievances to face common danger. When people from these two states were crossing a river in the same boat and encountered a storm, they had to work together to save themselves; in that sense, they were just like the left and right hands of the same person. The story implies that there is no absolute and perpetual enmity or friendship. Under certain circumstances, an enemy can be turned into a friend.
DETAILED>>The cycle of five elements that repeatedly follow each other in fixed succession is a belief that interpreted the rise and fall of dynasties and political changes. It was propounded by Zou Yan (305?-240 BC), a thinker of the Warring States Period. The five elements are metal, wood, water, fire and earth; they are also known as the five virtues that appear in cyclical repetition. Zou Yan believed changes in human history were similar to those of the natural world and were controlled by these five physical elements. The birth of each new dynasty represented the rise of a certain “virtue.” What drove dynastic transitions and political changes was the recurrence of the five elements as they generated or overcame each other. This view of political virtue and cyclical history with its roots in yin and yang and the five elements has, from its inception, had a very strong influence on traditional Chinese culture.
DETAILED>>This refers to the concept of the five basic elements, each in turn giving rise to the next. The five basic elements are: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. All things in the world are composed of these five elements or possess their properties. According to this concept, wood produces fire; fire produces earth; earth produces metal; metal produces water; and water produces wood. Similarly, things with the properties of these five elements also have similar relations between themselves.
This refers to the concept of the five elements sequentially overpowering each other, which is also described as “the five elements, each in turn checking the next”. The term “five elements” refers to five basic material elements, namely: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. According to this concept, water checks fire, fire checks metal; metal checks wood; wood checks earth; and earth checks water. Similarly, things with the properties of these five elements also have corresponding relations between themselves. For example, some thinkers in the Qin and Han dynasties adopted this theory to explain dynastic changes.
The ancient Chinese came to know early that the nature or state of things change to their opposite under certain circumstances. In the Northern Song Dynasty, Cheng Yi (1033-1107) gave a detailed description of the rules of such change when he argued that “when reaching an extreme, things are bound to revert to their opposites.” This view believes that things tend to change when reaching an extreme in their nature or state. In such a state, things inevitably transform themselves into their opposite.
DETAILED>>According to Records of the Historian, in order to gain the people’s trust before initiating his political reforms, Shang Yang (390?-338 BC) announced that, regardless of whoever it might be, if anyone was able to move a huge log 3 zhang long（ approx. 7 meters） from the southern gateway to the northern gateway of the market in the capital city, he would be amply rewarded. A person was bold enough to attempt this task and succeeded; hence he was immediately rewarded with a generous sum of money. After that, the people were convinced that Shang Yang was one who kept his word, and hence, he was able to issue his new decrees unimpeded. The important thing here is “the establishment of credibility” – winning the people’s trust. In order to pass a country’s decrees unimpeded, one must first gain trust, which is imperative for issuing a decree. Only in this way can the support and allegiance of the common people be gained.
DETAILED>>The term means to study common and concrete human affairs and to progress from that to an understanding of higher and more universal truths. Coming from The Analects, it literally means to study human affairs and understand heaven’s will, but is actually advocating a spirit of scholarship and selfcultivation which regards the pursuit of heaven’s will and heaven’s way to be the highest stage of one’s life and lifelong mission. This is to mean that knowing something is to understand its truths, while acting upon something is to know its principles. This concept of scholarship and self-cultivation encourages people not to be satisfied with acquiring a specific object or learning a specific thing; rather, they should progress to acquiring knowledge of fundamental truths or universal rules, and strive for self-perfection or to reach a heightened state of self-awareness. The philosophical basis of this idea is that there is no distinction between dao and objects, and that knowledge and action are one.
DETAILED>>This means that the party, especially the one who initiates a military engagement, should plan carefully in advance so as to avoid taking ill-prepared moves. A good commander expects to win victory by taking the initiative and will plan meticulously. On the basis of comparing his forces with the adversary in all aspects, the commander seeks to create the most favorable conditions for himself and make plans for all eventualities and changes to make sure that the engagement will unfold in the way he wishes and thus allow him to gain the upper hand. The saying that “do not fight if you are not sure of defeating the enemy” originates from this expression.
DETAILED>>A literary work should be beautiful in wording and solid in content. Xian (衔) means “hold in one’s mouth,” and pei (佩), “put on.” Hua (华) originally meant a “flower” and figuratively stood for “elegant language” or “formal beauty.” Shi (实) originally meant “fruit” and figuratively signified “fullness of content.” A concept in ancient literary crticism, it has been widely accepted over the centuries that an ideal work of art gives equal weight to content and form. This is an essential principle governing the writing of prose and poetry since ancient times. It originates from the example of the sages' works. Some works prioritize formal beauty and others focus on fullness of content. Likewise, different writers have different aesthetic tastes. But overall, a balance should be struck between these two merits. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties established this principle on the basis of the works of the sages. While opposing formalism, he nevertheless recognized the value of formal beauty and technique.
A term in ancient Chinese poetic terminology, this concept refers to aesthetic appreciation that is natural, spontaneous, and unadulterated. Xian (现) means“appear,” and liang (量) means “measurement.”The term came originally from the Hetu vidya (knowledge of causes) Theory in Buddhism, and referred to the direct responses of human senses to physical things in the world. Buddhism holds that human intuitive perception of the physical world is a spontaneous and subjective reaction that does not need intentional deliberation. Wang Fuzhi (1619-1692)applied the term to art and literary criticism to argue that aesthetic images in familiar lines of classical Chinese poems such as“upon the long river the setting sun is round” and “ask the woodcutter across the stream” come from direct observation and spontaneous reaction. Thus the “beauty of spontaneous response”is actually a type of beauty that can be intuitively sensed, arouses interest on the spot,naturally inspires, needs no rationale, and defies explanation.
This was an important social function in ancient China. On the basis of their purpose, such banquets can generally be divided into two kinds: one was to entertain virtuous people in the locality in a display of respect for them; the other was hosted by local officials to entertain the elders to show respect and care for them. Such banquets were important in maintaining moral order in rural communities.
DETAILED>>This term refers to two things that are mutually opposite to but complementing each other and that they mutually transform between them. Everything is an antithesis to something else. Both antithetic sides are opposite to each other. Therefore there is mutual exclusion between them, such as you and wu, long and short, high and low, good and bad, and beautiful and ugly. On the other hand, the nature or the identity of a thing is established due to something antithetic to it. The two opposing sides can transform into each other under certain conditions. This concept emerged in the pre-Qin period. In The History of the Han Dynasty written by Ban Gu（32-92）, the idea was first defined as “two things being both opposite and complementary.”
DETAILED>>This concept refers to those calligraphic works, poems, essays, and other literary and artistic works that are natural, leisurely and simple in style but have profound implications. A natural and leisurely style rejects excessive embellishment and is not bound by any particular forms. Created by Su Shi (1037–1101) in the Song Dynasty as a term of literary and art criticism, this concept had great influence on literary and artistic works in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Based on the thought of Zhuangzi （369？-286 BC） and including the thinking of the Chan Sect, this concept stresses the need to be leisurely and simple and the need to avoid being opinionated, to break free from the fetters of rules and regulations and to take things as they come to ensure that an artistic work embodies the beauty of leisure, simplicity, freedom, and naturalness.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the exercise of benevolent government by virtuous and wise rulers in ancient China to win the allegiance of all the vassals, so as to achieve an integration and acculturation of different tribes, nations or ethnic groups and create a harmonious and unified alliance of tribes or a multi-ethnic state. Harmonious coexistence of all is a key feature of the concept of social harmony in Chinese culture and one of the core values of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>This is a principle for the application of rules and norms, first cited in The Great Learning, a section ofThe Book of Rites. The Book advocates the use of xieju by administrators in governance when dealing with people. Xie (絜) originally meant a string used for measuring the circumference of an object, while ju (矩) was a square used for drawing squares, rectangles or right angles. The combination of the two characters refers to rules and norms which must be upheld. In this case, the rules and norms require an administrator to put himself in others’ position and judge their requests based on what he himself would want or not want, to not force upon others what he would reject, and to make this a norm in his governance and his work.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the act of depicting the outward features of an object to convey its innate character in literary writing. It stresses the need not only to reproduce in words whatever appears before one’s eyes but also to capture it with one’s soul, thus achieving a close communion with the object depicted. The point is to bring out the hidden impact and spirit of things, or to express a profound feeling toward them. Only thus can an excellent work of art be produced.
This concept was proposed by Wang Gen (1483-1541), a student of Wang Yangming (1472-1529) and founder of the Taizhou School of the Mind, and is derived from Wang Yangming’s idea of “joy being original of man’s heart.” For Wang Gen, all humans are born joyful. The reason why many are not happy is that their true and innate joy is blinded by their selfish desires. To break away from this constraint, they must use their inner conscience to detect their selfish desires. By the innate knowledge of good, these selfish desires can be eliminated, thus allowing the return of true and innate joy and the acquisition of a joyful disposition. In fact, the concept that “joy is original of man’s heart and mind” is a combination of “the innate knowledge of good” and “the joyous essence of the heart” and is thus a development of Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind.
DETAILED>>The term, a shortened version of ren tong ci xin, xin tong ci li (人同此心，心同此理), was first proposed by Lu Jiuyuan (1139-1193). Xinxue (心学), the Neo-Confucian philosophy of Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming (1472-1529)，teaches that the innate knowledge of the human mind and the principles of the universe are in liaison, that truth transcends time and space, that the mind and the dao are universal for all mankind. All human beings, past and present, east or west, have a common innate knowing of truth and morality, and this is the basis for a common human identity. As Western and Chinese cultures came into increasing contact after the Ming and Qing dynasties, this expression was an attempt to explain that, even though East and West differed in their academic cultures and much of the new knowledge differed in form from Chinese epistemology, their fundamental thinking could be reconciled.
DETAILED>>This term means to gladly and willingly follow someone by virtue of their moral character and conduct. Mencius （372？-289 BC）believed that the proper way to convince others was not by forcing them to do something, but by demonstrating a high level of self-cultivation and morality. A person with high ethical standards will convince others, out of appreciation and regard, to accept his teachings or political ideas.
DETAILED>>According to Confucius（551-479BC）, The Book of Songs served these four purposes, which summarize the basic functions and values of literature. “Stimulation” means that the appreciation of literary works arouses imagination, stimulates reflection on society and life, and inspires aspirations and interests. “Contemplation” means that reading leads to understanding nature, society, life, and politics. “Communication” means that reading encourages discussion with others, and exchange of thoughts and feelings. “Criticism” means learning how to critically express oneself about state affairs and voice inner feelings. These four functions are closely associated and involve the aesthetic, cognitive, and educational functions of literature. Later scholars have continued to make original contributions to the study of these themes.
DETAILED>>Promote what is beneficial to the people; eliminate what is not. Those in power should place the interests of the public at the forefront of their concerns, focusing on what is beneficial and eliminating what is harmful. In ancient China, Confucians, Mohists, and Legalists all held that this was the fundamental duty of a ruler, and determined whether or not there was public support and hence political legitimacy for his rule. Today “govern for the people” has its roots in this concept.
DETAILED>>The term represents one interpretation of the relationship between “knowledge” and “action.” Regarding the relationship between “knowledge” and “action,” Wang Fuzhi（1619-1692） and others argued that “action precedes knowledge.” Wang acknowledged that an understanding of the principles underlying human relations in everyday life is interrelated with the application of these principles, but in terms of sequence, only through “action” can one obtain “knowledge.” “Action” is the source of “knowledge” and has a decisive impact on “knowledge.” If one can “act,” one inevitably “knows” about one’s actions, but the ability to “know” does not necessarily translate into the ability to “act.”
DETAILED>>When a person’s physical form has fully developed, he will develop spiritual activity accordingly. Here “form” refers to the physical form of a human being, and “spiritual” refers to various mental activities, including emotions and consciousness. Xunzi (313-238 BC) pointed out that a person’s physical form and spirit, just like everything else, develop naturally in the course of the movement of the way of heaven. Spirit is born in the wake of physical formation of a human being. Full physical form is a prerequisite to the birth of spirit. A person’s spirit exists within his physical form.
DETAILED>>Human nature is a mixture of good and evil. This is a view of human nature held by ancient Chinese people. According to this theory, human nature can neither be all good nor all evil, but instead good and evil co-exist within us. Being good or evil is the result of cultivation after one’s birth. Therefore, according to this theory, the key to being a person of virtue lies in learning and education.
The term means that in a period of peace after war or social upheaval, the economy and population can recover and multiply. In practice it means the sovereign shall reduce taxes and conscript labor, support agriculture, allowing the population to procreate, life to return to normal, and society to recover. It first appeared as a governing strategy in the early Han Dynasty after the ravages of the wars with the previous Qin Dynasty. By the time the Han took over, the country was devastated and the population severely depleted. This policy allowed society to gradually recover and the nation to grow. From then on, “develop economy and increase population” became an important principle and policy of government throughout Chinese history. Sometimes it was instituted reluctantly because of specific circumstances, sometimes actively pursued as a manifestation of benevolent rule, sometimes a mixture of both. It is the concrete application of the social and political principle “the people are the foundation of the state.”
DETAILED>>This term means to establish credibility by careful use of language. The Chinese character xiu (修) refers to the careful selection of words and phrases as well as logical arrangement of text in writing a story, and some believe that it also refers to the cultivation of one’s mind. The Chinese character ci (辞) refers to what one says, and some interpret it as governance of public affairs and cultivation of good manners. The Chinese phrase licheng (立诚) means to establish credibility. When it comes to the writing of stories, it means what one writes about is true, the rhetoric one uses is plain and simple and one is sincere in expressing his feelings. Because of different written explanations in ancient books as well as different interpretations about the relationship between xiuci and licheng, this set phrase has primarily two meanings. The first addresses the overhaul of rituals and music as well as legal codes. This means that rulers must compose documents or essays with sincerity so that the principles for governance and social norms can be explicitly illustrated in documents or essays. As a result, the principles for running the country and social norms will be accepted by the public from well-written documents and essays, and be followed to the letter. The second refers to the expression of what a writer really thinks and feels when it comes to the writing of stories or essays. Confucianism holds that diction conveys what a writer thinks and feels, and hence the moral integrity of the writer can find expression in what he writes. If anything, this phrase indicates the importance Chinese people attach to the consistency between language and reality, between one’s words and actions, and between one’s appearance and inner thoughts.
DETAILED>>Those in power should cultivate their own virtue, thus improving their moral character, conduct government affairs according to moral principles, and arrange for the people to live in peace. Strengthening the army means enhancing military might through training and discipline. However, the aim is not to threaten others with overwhelming might to obtain advantages but to maintain sufficient strength under moral standards to safeguard social stability and the interests of the people, using armed strength in a reasonable way on the basis of “cultivating virtue.”
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“Cultivating oneself” means taking pains to elevate one’s talent and virtue constantly to achieve perfection, thus inwardly becoming a sage. “Benefiting others” means displaying one’s own talent and virtue to make contributions to society and benefit others, thus outwardly becoming a person like a king. This was what Confucius（551-479 BC） meant by a “man of virtue” and is also a simple expression of the Confucian school’s notion of rule by virtue.
Self-cultivation is the starting point of several steps moving outward. The next step is managing family affairs, followed by governing the state. The final step is moving to provide peace and sound governance to all under heaven. This process is a fundamental theme in Confucian moral philosophy and discourse on politics. It is a gradually expanding process beginning with the individual and emanating outward into serving and benefiting an ever-larger whole. In such a process an individual’s virtue and self-improvement are inseparable from his political aspirations.
DETAILED>>Refining rhetorical skills is inseparable from nurturing the body and mind. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, the Southern Dynasties literary critic Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) summed up three main functions of rhetorical skills, pointing out that they are essential to political and educational affairs, to government operation and its efficacy, and to individual’s self-cultivation of body and mind. Be it governance of the world or personal cultivation, rhetorical skills matter. This view dates straight back to Confucius (551-479 BC), who observed that “poorly prepared discourses neither spread far nor last long,”casting little influence on others. Therefore, a man of virtue should not only engage in self-cultivation, keep improving his morality, and accumulate various forms of knowledge, but also attach importance to the effective communication of his thoughts and emotions. In other words, he should take his language use seriously and be eloquent. His thoughts and emotions lay the basis for the cultivation of his character, and excellent rhetorical skills help sublimate his morality. Such self-cultivation is comprehensive and practical. When it comes to writing, one should develop substantial ideas and deliver them gracefully.
DETAILED>>This phrase describes a breadth of mind that is broad and open as a deep and expansive mountain valley. Metaphorically, it refers to a person who is modest, generous, and tolerant, good at listening to other people’s opinions and taking them into consideration, which is a desirable characteristic deemed typical in eminent people and leaders. People with such a quality can accommodate various opinions, including criticism and objections. In so doing, they can make timely correction of their mistakes or amend erroneous policies, thereby attracting more people to join and support them. This term is similar in meaning to other concepts such as “having ample virtue and carrying all things” and “a broad mind achieves greatness.”
DETAILED>>This refers to a state of mind Xunzi （313？-238 BC）proposed as a way to master the dao of general morality. He believed that one gets to know dao through the action of one’s heart and mind. But since the human heart and mind are often closed, they can only function normally when one is open-minded, concentrated, and consequently tranquil. Xu (虚), or open-mindedness, prevents prior knowledge from hindering the acquisition of new knowledge. Yi (壹), or concentration, allows one to assimilate knowledge of different categories while keeping them from interfering with each other. Jing (静), or tranquillity, is to keep the false and confusing knowledge from obstructing one’s normal process of contemplation.
DETAILED>>This concept is about the quiet and reticent demeanor of people who are preoccupied with exploring profound, esoteric and novel issues. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, written by Liu Xie (465?-520?or532?) in the Southern Dynasties, it refers to writings with profound meaning and deep emotion but are expressed in a plain, simple, unpretentious and unadorned way. Also it refers to a style of similar kind. Later, this concept evolved into a writing style of pursuing an aesthetic effect that appears plain but is rich and evocative, similar to the writing style of iceberg principle and zero intervention in Western literature.
DETAILED>>This term means to help people by practicing medicine. “Hanging a gourd” refers to the tradition of using gourd containing medications as a sign for those practicing and selling medicines; it is used more broadly to refer to those in the medical profession. “Helping the world” means providing aid and relief to those in distress. This concept elevates the practice of medicine above ordinary occupations and livelihoods, and imbues it with humanistic caring. It praises the deeds of physicians who care for the sick and dying, and is also a moral standard and value by which they should measure themselves.
DETAILED>>The term literally means to tie one’s hair on the house beam and jab one’s side with an awl. The idiom comes from the ancient story about how assiduously people studied. Sun Jing of the Eastern Han (25-220) would incessantly read books from dawn to dusk alone. When he felt tired or fatigued, he would tie his hair to the beam of the house, so that the moment he began to nod off, his head would be jerked back and this would immediately rouse him, and he could continue reading. During the Warring States Period, Su Qin (?-284 BC) would use an awl to jab at his own thigh, whenever he felt sleepy to make sure he stayed awake and lucid enough to be able to continue reading. Later, people started to tell these stories in order to encourage young people to study hard. Today, this kind of extreme measures which are physically harmful are no longer encouraged. However, this kind of assiduous spirit in the pursuit of knowledge is still highly lauded.
An actual object should be assessed according to the name referring to it. Holding actualities according to its name was an important means for ancient Chinese to govern the state. In actual human relations concerning ethics and morality, every specific role or status had its name, which determined the character or responsibilities of that status. People with certain status had to be assessed on the basis of their status, and it was required that their actual words and actions corresponded to the character and responsibilities determined by the name of their status.
DETAILED>>Words cannot fully express the fundamental understanding of the world. According to The Book of Changes, words are inadequate for expressing what one means and that was why the hexagram images were made to convey the ideas of the sages. Xun Can (209?-238), Wang Bi (226-249), and other metaphysicians of the Wei and Jin dynasties further elucidated this concept. Their understanding of the relationship between language and thinking was determined by their understanding of the ontological existence or original source of the world. They believed that the world’s ontological existence or original source was wu (无), which was beyond anything tangible. Wu had no specific form or attribute, and it was therefore impossible to name or describe it. Thus, language was found to have its limitations in expressing thought.
DETAILED>>These were the eight outstanding artists active in the Yangzhou area during Qing Emperors Kangxi's(1662-1722) and Qianlong's(1736-1795) reigns. They boasted unique personalities and magical styles of painting. Their names are: Wang Shishen (1686-1762?), Li Shan (1686-1762), Jin Nong (1687-1763), Huang Shen (1687-1768?), Gao Xiang (1688-1753), Zheng Xie (1693-1765), Li Fangying (1695-1754) and Luo Pin (1733-1799) (a slightly different list of names also exists). They were mostly officials who had fallen from favor or scholars who had failed to accomplish what they aspired to achieve, and therefore found an outlet for their pent-up anger through painting and calligraphy. Disdaining conventional ways of painting, they created novel styles of their own, breaking new ground in the fields of calligraphy-in-painting, pure calligraphy, and seal cutting. For their unique accomplishments, they were called "wayward geniuses" and "weirdoes" by their contemporaries. Their more honorable title was "The Magical Eight Painters of Yangzhou." They exerted a profound influence on modern period painters such as Qi Baishi (1864-1957) and Chen Shizeng (1876-1923).
When no sagacious person was ignored, all men with virtue and talent were employed by the government. This is a demonstration of the ancient concept of “
exalting the worthy.” Since ancient times, China has emphasized that people should be appointed to official positions in accordance with their virtue, and each person should perform his or her role to the fullest. This was believed to guarantee the sound governance of the state. All systems for selecting people for official posts in ancient China, including selection by recommendations or by imperial examinations, were established on the basis of this conception. The principle of “no sagacious person is ignored” was regarded as one of the symbols of good governance of a country.
DETAILED>>Leaves wither and fall on the ground by the tree roots. This metaphor implies that all creatures have an old home to return to even after a long sojourn in distant parts. It expresses nostalgia for one’s native place that has been common among Chinese people since ancient times. Although such feelings are inevitably conservative, they embody people’s good and honest love for their native soil and next of kin, and their feelings for the nation. It is a mainspring of their identification with their culture.
DETAILED>>Qi (气), or vital force, consists of two opposing aspects. According to the Song- dynasty philosopher Zhang Zai（1020-1077）, everything in the world consists of qi. On the one hand, qi is a whole and one thing；on the other, it consists of pairs of contradictory states, such as the real and the unreal, motion and stillness, concentration and diffusion, and clarity and opacity. Without interaction between the opposite states, the whole cannot exist. Likewise, without the whole, there can be no interaction between the opposite states. Contradictions within the whole constitute the source of changes of qi and all things made of qi.
DETAILED>>A single remark can help a country thrive. As governance is a highly complex undertaking, it is impossible to make a country prosperous simply by following an idea expressed in a single remark. However, if a ruler thoroughly understands how difficult it is to run a country and exercises governance with prudence and dedication, it is quite possible for him to make his country prosper. In this sense, the effect of such concept, which can almost be likened as a single remark, will make a country flourish.
DETAILED>>One needs to observe a fundamental principle in the entire process of academic and other pursuits. According to Confucianism, to establish oneself, one should gain a good command of knowledge and skills in a wide range of areas and abide by moral principles and norms. Confucius （551-479 BC） himself stressed that there is a fundamental principle running through all such knowledge and skills as well as moral standards. He taught his disciples how to master this fundamental principle so as to meet the requirements for doing things with knowledge and skills acquired. Scholars of later generations have different interpretations about what this fundamental principle is. Zengzi （505-436 BC） believed that it is loyalty and forbearance.
DETAILED>>A physician must have a caring heart. This essential spirit has existed since ancient times. In the chapter “On the Skill and Sincerity of a Master Physician” of his work Essential Formulas for Emergencies, the famous Tang Dynasty physician Sun Simiao (581-682) discussed how a physician should have a compassionate heart, that is, a caring heart. A physician is expected to have great love, a sense of empathy and a desire to relieve suffering; he must disregard personal interests and focus entirely on treating the sick. In so doing, the physician becomes a “master physician to all the people,” a great physician held in high esteem by all the people. This expression can be considered a classic expression of the humanist spirit of Chinese medicine.
DETAILED>>This is one of the important functions of music. Social practices are common forms of behavior formed within communities over time, and they can also include aspects that do not conform to rites. Changing such widespread habits is extremely difficult and cannot be accomplished by mandatory regulations alone. This is where music comes into play by affecting and stirring people’s emotions so that they gradually change their ways and willingly conform to the requirements of rites.
DETAILED>>This expression is a war fighting principle proposed by the ancient military thinker Sunzi in The Art of War. It means that a commander should have an accurate and full assessment of one’s own and the enemy’s deployment and not be distracted by temporary setbacks or difficulties. He should skillfully use unfavorable factors or situations to lull the enemy into a situation to his own advantage, and thus gain the upper hand. Such a military tactic is also used in social activities in which there is competition.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to writing ci poems in the same way other poems are written. In the history of the development of ci poems, one school represented by Li Qingzhao (1084-1151?) emphasized that ci poems should mainly express one’s emotions and mood and that the rhythm should be harmonized so that ci poems can be sung. Hence, they criticized the way of writing ci poems just as other poems, which they believed failed to demonstrate the distinctive features and aesthetic requirements of the ci poems genre. Another school represented by Su Shi (1037-1101) refused to be bound by the musical requirements of ci poems, believing that meaning of poems should not be sacrificed for the sake of musical rhythm. Such poets were more flexible in choosing words and their ci poems covered a wide variety of subjects. This expanded the subjects of ci poems and reduced their monotony as works on tender feelings of men and women, thus creating new styles of ci poems. Thus, ci poems were no longer lyrics just for singing and became a poetic form with new features while retaining their musical quality.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to writing ci poems in the same way as writing prose. This is manifest in the inclusion of arguments, narratives, allusions, and ancient syntax in ci poems, which deviates from the ci poems style of focusing on one’s emotions and mood and rhythmic harmony. Many of Su Shi’s (1037-1101) ci poems include titles and prefaces that highlight the intent of narrative and reasoning. Xin Qiji (1140-1207) wrote ci poems in the style of prose, making such poems more like prose. Some later scholars believed that the use of arguments and daily phrases in ci poems weakened the distinctive features of ci poems, while others felt that such a style broadened the scope of ci poems and enriched their value.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a playful approach to the composition of prose. Famed Tang Dynasty writer Han Yu (768-824), for example, wrote his “Biography of Mao Ying” and “Bidding Farewell to Poverty,” both dealing with serious themes, in a witty way. Playful writing thus became a style of classic Chinese prose. It stressed the entertaining, game-like function of literature and playfully explored serious themes. Thus, a writer often personified a non-human object or conjured up a situation to satirize human behavior and express personal feelings. This playful approach to writing became highly controversial, as it stood in contrast to the established Confucian notion that literature should be a vehicle of cultivating moral values. Some scholars like Pei Du (765-839) and Zhang Ji (767?-830?) opposed this style of writing, but Liu Zongyuan (773-819) wrote an essay in support of Han Yu, arguing that playful writing had intellectual value and aesthetic significance, and it was in fact not that different from the tradition of regarding literature as a vehicle of cultivating moral values. These two views were mutually complementary, each with its theoretical value. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan broke new ground with their literary theory and works, enriched the styles of classic Chinese literature with playful writing, and greatly influenced essay writing of later generations.
DETAILED>>Wu (无) is regarded as the original source or ontological existence of the world in classical Chinese thinking. Laozi claimed that “you (有) is born out of wu.” This concept was further developed by He Yan（？-249）, Wang Bi（226-249）, and other thinkers of the Wei and Jin dynasties, who maintained that heaven, earth, and all things in the world originate from wu. No specific being, they argued, can be the original source or ontological existence of another being, much less of the world. The formation and existence of everything depend on wu, which is the fundamental source that transcends all tangible beings. Only an intangible and unidentifiable ontological existence gives countless specific beings their functions.
DETAILED>>This concept means to observe and understand things in accordance with their own characteristics. It is a way of observing and understanding things proposed by Shao Yong (1011-1077), a neo-Confucian philosopher of the Song Dynasty. According to him, in the process of observing and understanding things, people often form likes and dislikes for things based on their own subjective consciousness, which affects their understanding of the true nature of things. Therefore, he proposed the idea of observing things based on their own features, believing that people should adopt a calm attitude to remove the influence of subjective consciousness and observe things in accordance with their own characteristics to truly understand them as they are.
DETAILED>>Abolishing punishment with punishment is a concrete manifestation of the Legalist school’s “rule by law.” Seemingly the same as the Confucian notion that punishment is meted out for the purpose of eliminating punishment, it is in fact quite different. Confucians esteemed rites, wanting to get rid of punishments by means of virtue, while Legalists valued punishments, applying severe penalties to inflict fear in the hearts of the common people so that they would not dare commit crimes. Thus there would be no need for punishment. From the point of view of achieving the ideal of “great order under heaven,” Legalist “abolition of punishment” is very close to Confucian “elimination of punishment” but lacks the human concern of Confucianism.
Mountains and rivers accord with Dao by way of their shapes. Zong Bing (375-443), a painter of the Southern Song Dynasty, in his “On the Creation of Landscape Paintings” expanded on a saying by Confucius （551-479 BC）– “A virtuous man loves mountains and a wise man loves water.” Zong held that mountains and rivers not only displayed their natural splendor to humanity, but also demonstrated the natural law of changes. Therefore, they were loved by men of virtue. This term shows the aesthetic view of people in the period of the Six Dynasties.
DETAILED>>Painters depict physical appearances to reveal the essence. Gu Kaizhi(345?-409), a painter of the Eastern Jin dynasty, lays great emphasis on the correspondence between the essence and physical forms: He depicts the appearance of objects in great detail, which embodies their spiritual disposition. He believes this is the highest requirement of painting. He urges painters to capture those outward features that best reveal the spiritual attributes of the objects depicted. This view has exerted a great influence on later artistic endeavors.
To act based on morality and justice, that is, to manage major political and military matters according to the principles of morality and justice. In ancient Chinese political discourse, it was never right to suggest that power could be exercised arbitrarily. On the contrary, it was expected that there should be a legitimate basis for the creation of power, and that power would be exercised according to moral precepts. The ancient Chinese always attached great importance to this point. Morality and justice overrode and regulated power – such was the political ecology they highly esteemed.
DETAILED>>This term describes an appropriate approach to reading literary works by understanding the work from one’s own perspective. It was put forth by Mencius (372? -289 BC), a thinker in the Warring States Period, when he talked about how to correctly understand The Book of Songs. Since then, this concept, extended to become hermeneutic, has been applied broadly to poetry and all other literary works. This point of view emphasizes that readers should activate their own personal experiences and reflective thinking when reading literary works so as to grasp or infer the sentiments that authors try to convey through their work, thus becoming able to understand its content and main themes. This viewpoint has evolved into a theory for artistic appreciation in ancient Chinese literary criticism.
DETAILED>>This is an ancient Chinese belief on the role of war. The first “war” means a just war, the second an unjust one. A just war is waged to resist a war that has been forced upon one. It is not of one’s choosing, but is fought to defend the country and the people from imposed violence, in order to ultimately end the war and restore peace and stability. It expresses the “civil” spirit of the Chinese nation that believes in justice and peace. It is similar in meaning to “stopping war is a true craft of war.”
DETAILED>>Treat a person you hold a grudge against with upright behavior. “Repaying a grudge with rectitude” was a principle proposed by Confucius（551-479 BC） for dealing with grudges. He felt that both “repaying a grudge with a grudge” and “repaying a grudge with kindness” were incorrect. Confucius argued that one should not deliberately seek vengeance out of momentary anger, nor should one conceal resentment over a grudge and repay it with kindness. Rather, one should analyze the rights and wrongs of the episode which created the grudge, and respond according to the principles of rectitude.
DETAILED>>Yi (义) means acting appropriately and doing things properly. The expression comes from The Book of Rites. It not only defines yi, but also refers to an important principle of state and social governance, that is, humans and all living things must act appropriately in line with the actual circumstances, to suit both the time and the individual. At the highest level, it means that all living things must follow their intrinsic nature to grow and become their best. It is an idea of governance that integrates the man-made and the natural, and also a view of responsibility and justice that is both necessary and inevitable.
DETAILED>>To entrust the education of one’s children to outside teachers – the notion that parents should put the education of their children to others rather than take it upon themselves is an educational insight attributed to the ancient philosopher Mencius (372?-289 BC). In his view, familial bonds thrive on affection, while the teacher-student relationship is grounded in discipline, with this dichotomy posing a challenge when parents step into the role of formal educators. In doing so, they may not only inadvertently undercut educational outcomes, but also risk dampening the innate warmth of parent-child ties. It is important to note that this wisdom speaks specifically to formal education; it is not a dismissal of the crucial role parents play in guiding their children’s learning within the family context.
DETAILED>>Here, jing (静) means being tranquil and focused, whereas wang (王) means “exuberant.” Together, they describe a tranquil state of mind as being a source of inspiration. This concept is used in ancient times to describe the metal state during the process of literary creation. First proposed by Jiaoran, a Tang Dynasty poet-monk (720-796?), it sketches a highly creative state of mind that enables a poet to bring out his best. The term has much in common with the Daoist ideas of “pure state of the mind” or “forgetting the difference and opposition between self and the universe,” as well as the tranquil and creative state of the mind described by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties, which values “quiet emptiness of the mind” in conceiving a piece of writing.
DETAILED>>This term means to educate and teach according to people’s caliber and their interests. Cai (材) refers to factors such as people’s caliber and interests, and their level of education. This is an educational and pedagogical principle first practiced by Confucius (551-479 BC), and later summarized and established by others. We may say that the core concepts of this principle are shuaixing (率性 acting in accordance with human nature) as described in The Book of Rites, and jinxing (尽性 making full use of human nature) as described in The Book of Changes. It has been widely accepted to this day, and its gist is that in education and pedagogy, the choice of subject matter, methods and goals must vary according to the individual characteristics of the audience if they are to achieve better outcomes. This principle has been corroborated through psychology and pedagogy, and has become a fundamental concept in the modern science of education.
In this concept, shi (势) means how things exist, change and evolve, which is objective and primary; and li (利) is the goal set by people, which is subjective and secondary. A goal should be reached through interactions between the objective and the subjective, not by imposing subjective desire on the objective. As the initiator of action, people must continuously try to achieve alignment between the objective and the subjective. In this way they will rationalize their knowledge, develop a broad perspective and make timely adjustments, which will lead to new discoveries, innovations and advancement. This is the relationship between the objective and the subjective.
DETAILED>>“The qi (vital force) of yin and yang” refers to the two types of qi – an element that constitutes all things corporeal. With opposite attributes, the qi of yin and qi of yang interact with each other in accordance with certain laws. Such interaction is a catalyst for the generation and changing of all things. In addition, the circulation of the two types of qi may actualize mutual perception and influence between the things.
DETAILED>>This concept is about achieving a rhythmic balance between speech and emotion to produce a cadence of speech in poems, which is advocated by Chen Zi'ang (659-700), an early Tang Dynasty scholar. It has multiple meanings. It refers to the author’s thoughts and emotions rising and falling with the tempo of the poem. It also means the poet’s intention to create an aesthetic effect through the rising and falling of the voice and emotional rhythm. The term also refers to the meter of the poem and the poet’s own emotional rhythm which together give the reader the feeling of rising and falling. The “cadence of speech” means building up energy and generating tension by pausing and blocking, so to make the sound and rhythm of the work more resonant and powerful, the tempo more distinct and exciting, and thus achieve the overall robust style of poetry.
This expression often goes with the concept “adversities reinforce a nation’s resilience.” The latter depicts a nation while the former applies to an individual. Stating that trials and tribulations can open one’s mind and stimulate the development of great wisdom, the expression reminds people to be proactive rather than reactive in the face of given circumstances. When things are favorable, one should be alert and prepared for potential risks. In the face of adversity, one should manage to open one’s mind and be optimistic. Stressing subjective initiative and self-reliance, this mentality gives full play to one’s talent or potential to tide over tough times.
DETAILED>>When drinking water, one should not forget its source. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Yu Xin (513-581) was forced to leave home and stay away from his home state for more than 20 years. Often homesick, he wrote in one of his essays that he always thought of the source of the water whenever he drank form the river, expressing his longing for his hometown in the Southern Dynasties. Eventually this became an idiom: when drinking water one should think of its source, implying that one should never forget his origin and always be grateful. This virtue has always been highly praised.
DETAILED>>This term refers to works of art which are banal in content and jumbled in form. Here yin (音) stands for words from the heart in general and poetic creation in particular. Ti (体) refers to the choice of genre or style on the basis of content. Zhong Rong (?-518?) used this concept to criticize some young poets of his time who, lacking true feelings and personal experience, could only produce works ill-organized in content and form, devoid of any clear theme or core emotion. In his opinion, they wrote poetry only out of love or because they admired poets for their refinement. Zhong’s contemporary Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) proposed six principles for emulating the creation of Confucian classics, in the chapter “Regarding Classics as Ultimate Sources” in his The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. First, writing should be an outcome of deep feelings, not of guile. Second, it should be stylistically innovative without causing confusion. Third, it should truthfully record people and things rather than distort them. Fourth, it should abandon sophistry in favor of fair reasoning. Fifth, it should be neatly structured, not too wide-ranging. Sixth, it should be charming without any hint of decadence.
DETAILED>>Courage lies in weakness or retreating, in bravely choosing not to venture into doing something. This exemplifies the wisdom in Laozi’s concepts of “weakness” and “non-action.” According to Laozi, it is dangerous to always push ahead stubbornly. One should advance when advancing is appropriate and retreat when retreating is appropriate. True courage is demonstrated not only in daring to do something, but even more so by not venturing into doing something. One must not only do, but also refrain from doing something rashly. This is a reminder that there are things that one must respect and obey. One should be brave enough to retreat and to refrain from doing something which violates rules, tramples on principles and disrupts norms. This applies to matters as minor as getting along with others and as big as governing a country.
DETAILED>>Education can and must be provided for all. It eliminates the differences in social status and wealth. (Another explanation is that education should be provided to students without discrimination on the basis of social status or wealth.) Education consists of teaching of social norms, music, and moral principles. A non-discriminatory approach to education means making no distinction between students based on their social status, wealth, mental capability, moral character, geographic location, or ethnicity. Transcending differences in social status, geography, and ethnicity, education for all without discrimination is a humanistic ideal that champions equal treatment of all people and rejects all forms of discrimination.
DETAILED>>A broad mind achieves greatness. Yourong (有容) means that one has the capacity to accommodate others. Da (大) refers to great courage and an important cause. Yourong is a moral standard, and more importantly, contains wisdom for survival. It is a conscious act of morality in pursuit of social harmony by managing and regulating relations between oneself and others on the basis of recognizing and respecting individual and social differences, without resorting to deliberate connivance or making unprincipled compromise. The term teaches people how to conduct themselves, particularly officials in exercising their administrative powers. That is, they should have a broad mind, open to different views and different things, like the sea accepting numerous rivers flowing into it. This is the way to cultivate great character and important achievements. Its meaning is similar to the term houde-zaiwu (厚德载物 have ample virtue and carry all things).
DETAILED>>This term originally referred to intelligent and noble-minded human beings and later came to also cover the writings and articles created by them. These writings and articles were seen as embodying human vision, with literary grace or fine adornment. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties, author of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, pointed out in the “Origin of Dao” section of that book the artistic grace, namely, the outward beauty, exists in all things in the world. “Since even non-human objects have a graceful style, how can humans, intelligent and full of vision, be without beautiful writing?” Liu’s argument is made abundantly clear here, which is that humans are naturally inclined to pursue outward beauty. This is the anthropological basis for the creation of beauty in literary and artistic works as well as literary styles.
This famous ancient Chinese fable from Liezi extols perseverance, determination and eagerness to surmount difficulty. Two huge mountains lay directly in front of the Foolish Old Man’s house. The Foolish Old Man, who was almost ninety years old, had to take a long detour whenever he went out. To get rid of this inconvenience, he led his sons and grandsons in chipping away at the mountains year after year. They would not give up despite jeers of the Wise Old Man, and eventually moved God, who sent heavenly spirits to move the mountains away. Originally, this fable pondered the relationship between foolishness and wisdom, the finite and the infinite, the forces of humans and the forces of nature as well as the relationship between the way of humans and the way of heaven. Since the Tang and Song dynasties, however, its underlying message about courage and perseverance in the face of challenge and adversity has gained increasing appreciation. Since then, the “Foolish Old Man Who Moved the Mountains” has become a synonym for forging ahead in the face of difficulties and persevering to the very end.
DETAILED>>The term means to make political reform together with the people. Gengshi (更始) means to make a fresh start. The term used to refer to a new emperor ascending the throne, taking a new reign title or implementing a series of new policies. Later, it came to mean that the rulers worked together with the people trying to change the status quo and opening up new prospects. The term reflects a profound and far-reaching thought of putting people first, and highlights the spirit of monarchs and the people working with one heart and one mind to abolish what is old and establish in its place a new order.
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The notion of adjusting one’s actions to the “times” comes from The Book of Changes. The “times” refer to the opportunities or chances that present themselves as human activities progress. In the circumstances determined by the times, one should choose correspondingly suitable methods of handling affairs. The appearance and disappearance of opportunities and chances, and their impact on human affairs reflect the principles of the way of heaven and human affairs. People should recognize and keep pace with the change of the times and adapt in agreement with the times.
DETAILED>>This is a term used in The Book of Changes to explain the meaning of hexagrams. It may be understood in two ways. First, when used in divination, it is a judgment predicting good fortune. Yuanheng (元亨) means a wide, smooth path or a grand sacrificial rite. Lizhen (利贞) refers to a favorable reading by a diviner and an auspicious prospect. Second, from the point of view of morality, it is believed to stand for four virtues associated with the qian (乾) hexagram. One view is that the four virtues are benevolence, rites, righteousness, and integrity; other views are that they represent four stages of life from birth to maturity, or four forms of moral conduct dictated by the way of heaven and adhered to by the sage in caring for all creatures.
DETAILED>>Names are established through popular usage. Xunzi （313？-238 BC） proposed this idea to describe how things are named. Xunzi believed that names fall into different categories, and every name is used to indicate a particular object. Which name is used to describe what or what kind of things is decided by the popularity of its use. When everybody accepts a name established by popular usage, it has become a fixed name for the particular object. This idea has also been used to describe the establishment of social norms.
DETAILED>>Governors of the country, especially principal
governors, should never be biased in making decisions on conflicting opinions,
interests, and forces in an unprincipled way, but rather they must
sincerely hold fast to the middle course with appropriate policies and
measures, and
sincerely adhere to a neutral and just position. In other words, they must
uphold principles and stay fair and unselfish. This concept has general significance and will help them govern the country well.
Water can carry a boat, but can also overturn it. Here, water is compared to the people, while the boat is compared to the ruler. The phrase, “carry or overturn the boat,” reveals the importance of popular support: people are the critical force that decides the future of a regime and a country. This is consistent with such political doctrines as “the people are the foundation of the state,” and “follow the mandate of heaven and comply with the wishes of the people.” Since ancient times, this term has served as a warning to the ruler, reminding him of the need to respect local conditions and popular will, to govern the country for the people, and to anticipate dangers in times of security.
DETAILED>>By boring a hole in the next door neighbor’s wall, he borrows light in order to read. Well-known scholar Kuang Heng in the Western Han Dynasty loved reading but his family was too poor to afford candles for him to read at night, so he chiseled a hole in the next door neighbor’s wall to “borrow light” in order to read. He later became a great scholar. As an inspirational story in ancient times, its significance extends beyond the story itself. It tells how important it is to be diligent in gaining knowledge.
Wording should be refined and colorful whereas figurative meaning should be discreet and varied. Thus opined Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties, when he summarized the creative features of The Book of Songs in the chapter “Regarding Classics as Ultimate Sources” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It also represents the universal aesthetic feature of literary creation. Complex feelings and aspirations are difficult to express in a straightforward way, so a wider variety of wording and techniques of expression are needed. Some profound aspirations cannot be directly stated, and have to be expressed in a discreet way. Thus, literary works may embrace both beautiful and colorful wording, as well as surprising and ingenious techniques of expression. They may also contain a wealth of implicit messages.
DETAILED>>Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), a literary critic of the Southern Dynasties, discussed the characteristics of sages’ writings in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. He stated that sages, on the basis of understanding and exploring the natural ways of heaven and earth, skillfully balanced writing styles such as concealing and highlighting, and used the right amount of words and expressions in their classics, thus making such writings elegant in form and rich in content. Therefore, these classics were regarded as models of writings. This view of Liu’s is also the basic principle underlying ancient Chinese literary theory. In later literary critique, the Confucian classics were followed as the standard of good writing for both poetry and prose.
DETAILED>>This principle of governance was proposed by Guan Zhong (?-645 BC), a statesman in the Spring and Autumn Period, and implies the concept of “state justice.” Zheng (正) means fair, which includes adhering to principles, having a virtuous character, and acting justly. Guan Zhong believed that the state must first and foremost uphold the principle of justice, or else it will not function properly and thus become ungovernable. This sounds almost contemporary, as modern scholars too argue that the state must have a moral character, of which justice is generally recognized as a part. Without justice, no state can be considered properly constituted.
DETAILED>>It’s the key to governance to ensure sustained stability. Zheng (政) refers to the fundamental systems, laws, and policies of a state. Gui (贵) means the most valuable thing. Youheng (有恒) means to ensure stability. A country, especially a large country, must preserve the constancy of its basic systems and fundamental laws. Laws, especially fundamental ones, must not be changed from time to time at random. Otherwise, the country will land into political turmoil and social chaos, resulting in irreversible and irreparable damages. This is the same notion as embodied in the saying “governing a big country is like cooking small fish.”
DETAILED>>This refers to efficient governance and harmonious people. Efficient governance means that the policies and decrees of the government are followed in all respects, and political affairs are handled in a smooth and effective way. The term “harmonious people” means that people are happy about their affairs, and commoners and officials are united and of one mind. It is close in meaning to the concept of “stable country and peaceful people.” However, this term puts more emphasis on the role of human agency, and the reciprocal relation between efficient governance and harmonious people.
Zheng (政), or governance, refers to policy and managing the country, while zheng (正), or rectitude, refers to adherence to principle, decent behavior, and handling matters with fairness. This term has two meanings. First, it emphasizes that those who govern should adhere to principle, behave correctly, and handle matters with fairness. Second, it emphasizes that at a moral level, those who govern should be strict with themselves, that they should play an exemplary role and thus show their subordinates and the people how to follow the right path and comply with social norms. It is a concrete expression of the idea “rule by man” and “governing by virtue” in ancient times.
DETAILED>>This term means one should not only have a good command of the basic rules that govern things, but also know how to deal with exceptional situations or problems in a flexible manner. It suggests that one should not just adhere to principles, but also act according to circumstances. Chang (常permanence) and bian (变change) are two opposing concepts in ancient Chinese philosophy. The nature of things that decides what they are, and their basic rules or general principles that are relatively stable are called chang (permanence); but when it comes to specific situations or ways to deal with them, they are different and change in different circumstances, thus they are called bian (change). Relative to change, permanence is what endures within change. Permanence is fundamental while change is a deviation. Therefore, one needs not only to have a good command of the basic rules and general principles of things, but also know how to apply these rules and principles in a flexible manner according to objective circumstances. The mastery of both permanence and change reflects ancient Chinese people’s perception of both generality and particularity as well as principles and flexibility. It also shows their methodology in the application of both.
DETAILED>>This term suggests that it is not difficult to act according to general moral principles; what is truly difficult is to appreciate them. This is a different understanding of the relationship between knowledge and action, which stands in contrast with the view that “to know is easy; to act is hard.” This idea was put forward by Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) in his Sun Wen’s Theory which was later incorporated into his The Fundamentals of National Reconstruction as the “Psychological Preparation” section. As Sun Yat-sen saw it, the traditional concept that “to know is easy; to act is hard” had by that time become a psychological barrier which both fettered people’s thinking and hindered revolutionary action. He thus proposed the view that “to act is easy; to know is hard” in opposition to the traditional view of knowledge and action, and emphasized the importance of gaining true knowledge to guide one’s action.
DETAILED>>This concept was coined by Mencius (372?-289BC), who advocated that one should make friends with a wide range of outstanding people. In addition to befriending contemporaries, one could also get acquainted with the ancients, reading the canonical texts left behind by them in order to understand their doctrines, ideas and views. In addition, he considered it necessary to “know others and discuss the circumstances they are in,” and on this basis to examine what kinds of people they were, so as to understand their theories and how they were influenced by the circumstances they lived in.
DETAILED>>First appeared in Mencius, the term zhiyan (知言) means to be able to tell whether various statements are truthful, right and good, in order to gain true knowledge. Yangqi (养气) refers to nurturing one’s mind and righteousness. Mencius (372?-289BC) emphasized that he's good at cuiltivating the noble spirit in himsef, which is then displayed in outward verbal articulation,and others can also understand this person's inner world from his writing. Based on a philosophical proposition, this literary concept highlights the influence of a writer’s self-cultivation on expressions used in writings and stresses that one’s righteousness can enhance his learning, moral character, outlook and temperament, which will ultimately manifest themselves as the vigorous style or appeal of their writings. The style of language is determined by the author's inner spiritual cultivation and his noble character. The Chinese literary theory of "resonance and empathy" in the later time is deeply affected by this view.
DETAILED>>It is not difficult to know the moral principles guiding daily life; what is difficult is to practice them. This was a way with which the ancient Chinese dealt with the relationship between knowledge and action. This approach stood in contrast with the belief that action is easy whereas knowing is hard. This concept is mentioned in both Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals and the “old text” version of The Book of History. Such a view of knowledge and action regards human knowledge and actions as both separate and interlinked. By emphasizing the difficulty of acting, it seeks to avoid a disconnect between knowledge and action.
DETAILED>>One who has a sense of satisfaction is truly wealthy. This is a saying of the ancient Chinese philosopher Laozi which expresses his attitude towards fame and fortune. Its essence lies in emphasizing the importance of cultivating one’s inner nature and elevating one’s inner spirit. It also implies the right relationship between satisfaction and wealth. Wealth not only means external material things, but also reflects an individual’s subjective perception or self-evaluation. Without self-improvement of one’s inner spirit, the relentless pursuit of external gains and greediness may result in a feeling of spiritual emptiness no matter how much fame and fortune one gains. This saying reminds us that our goal in life should be to increase our inner strength, rather than just seek fame or fortune.
DETAILED>>To be able to stop war is a true craft of war. This famous military view was first raised by King Zhuang of Chu（？-591 BC） in the Spring and Autumn Period, on the basis of the structure of the Chinese character wu (武). Wu is composed of zhi (止), which means to stop; and ge (戈), which means dagger-axe or weapons and is used here in the metaphorical sense of warfare. To interpret wu as stopping war was consistent with the cultural characteristics of Chinese characters. It also expresses the Chinese people’s thinking of using military means to stop violence and their love of peace and opposition to war.
DETAILED>>The highest level of sincerity never ceases. According to Confucianism, the “highest level of sincerity” is the prerequisite for “the development of one’s innate nature to the fullest extent.” Only a person of complete sincerity can thoroughly understand and give full play to the development of the inherent nature or essential attributes of oneself, other people, and the myriad things so as to reach the realm of perfection. This is an ongoing process of persistent effort. In this process, all people and the myriad things can achieve their own fulfillment.
DETAILED>>Utmost happiness is an inner peace that transcends any judgment as to whether we are happy or not. Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) held that happiness should be dictated solely by the heart. If we measure happiness against a worldly criterion, we may lose sight of life’s essential purpose. If we are driven by emotions and base desires, harm and loss may be the result. Our happiness in fact depends on our judgment of loss or gain. However, loss or gain is relative and subject to change. Only when we totally forget this question can we attain utmost happiness. This term reflects the spiritual magnanimity and the open, pluralistic worldview of ancient Chinese scholars, while urging them to greater effort at self-reflection, criticism, and transcendence.
DETAILED>>Li (rites) and yue (music) are a whole set of social norms for regulating individuals’ conduct and their relationships with other people as well as everything else in nature and even ghosts and spirits. These norms involve ceremonial vessels, rituals, and systems which were designed and established for various levels. Rites are hierarchical systems, and music harmonizes the thoughts and emotions opeople in different ranks. The two complement each other to maintain socialorder and achieve the ideal rule with benevolence. Confucianism believes that the social norms featuring rituals and music of the Zhou Dynasty were established and created by the kings of the time according to their understanding of natural laws and human sentiment. Such social norms epitomize their respect and proper expressions of the law of nature and human feelings.
DETAILED>>This expression means to ensure a secure livelihood for the people, a requirement for governance proposed by Mencius (372?-289 BC), who believed that if the common people did not have a steady income and could not maintain their survival, they would deviate from moral righteousness in pursuit of survival. Rulers, therefore, must create and provide the necessary means for the common people to maintain their daily lives. “Sustaining the people’s livelihood” is the foundation and prerequisite for rulers who wish to promote the moral edification of the people.
Ridding people of danger and suffering and enabling them to recover their health is the essential nature of medical treatment. It is also the noble aspiration or ideal of the physician, and it exemplifies the physician’s compassionate respect for human life and the humanistic spirit. This expression is now also used as an analogy in pointing out someone’s shortcomings or mistakes when criticizing or penalizing them, to enable them to overcome their shortcomings and correct their mistakes. Criticisms or penalties are merely measures taken to help someone; they target the behavior and not the person, and the goal is to bring someone with shortcomings or mistakes back onto the right path. This demonstrates the organic unity of firmly adhering to principles while showing leniency towards the person, and it is related to the concept “loving the people in accordance with rules of moral conduct.”
DETAILED>>A country’s internal affairs must be handled well before its external affairs can be handled well. Zhinei (治内) means that domestic governance has achieved an ideal state; caiwai (裁外) means assessing the broad trends in the world, making external policies, and selecting appropriate political, diplomatic, and military measures to influence the international situation. This tells us a basic principle: a country’s internal governance is the foundation of its external strategy.
DETAILED>>Confucian scholars believed that music interacts with both society and its political evolution; it also reflects the rise and decline of a state’s political strength and changes of social customs. Music education fosters good governance and social stability. In an age of peace and stability with enlightened governance and harmony, its music and poetry are characterized by serenity and joyfulness. “Music of an age of good order” also refers to some eulogies in The Book of Songs.
DETAILED>>This term describes a person who is wise and acts properly. Such a person has broad knowledge, is considerate and flexible in handling things, and knows how to behave in accordance with social norms and etiquette. This kind of person never takes unnecessary risks, nor lazily muddles along in life. Ancient Chinese held high esteem for such a person who knows how to integrate knowledge and action, talent and virtue, and flexibility and principles.
Literally, this term means “united, we’ll be as solid as a fortress.” With concerted effort, people collectively can generate tremendous strength and be able to overcome all difficulties. Zhi, the second character in the term, means will, and cheng, the last character, means the wall of a fortress. The whole term implies three most important elements: ( 1 ) the factor of human capability; ( 2 ) human spirit and courage; and ( 3 ) unity of the people.
This refers to the various schools of thought and their proponents during the period from the late Spring and Autumn Period through the early Han Dynasty.The Spring and Autumn Period witnessed an increasing disintegration of the old social order as well as of the values of the Zhou Dynasty. Faced with a social crisis , scholars of the times reflected deeply on problems, free from any restrictions. They advanced diverse theories on how to restore order and develop values. Such active theory-building and academic debating continued up to the early period of the Western Han Dynasty. Later generations referred to the large number of scholars and their works which had emerged at that time as A Hundred School of Thought (numerous philosophers and their works), and classified them into ten schools of thought: Confucianism, Mohism, Daoism, Logicians, Legalism, School of Yin-Yang, Agriculturalism, School of Diplomacy, Syncretism (or School of Miscellany, za jia), and School of Minor Talks (xiaoshuo jia). Among them, the first nine were more scholarly, and were therefore known as the "nine mainstream schools of the ten schools of thought." Due to the large number of proponents and their various theories, they are generally referred to as "A Hundred Schools of Thought."
The expression means to learn widely from others so as to enrich one’s own artistic creation. Zhuanyi (转益) means to learn and absorb everything that can further one’s creativity; duoshi (多师) means to learn from many teachers. This comes from “Six Playful Quatrains” by Du Fu (712-770) of the Tang Dynasty. There are two related meanings in this term: 1) learn from the experience and skills of all masters, past and present; and 2) while learning and carrying on the best, also be discerning, so as to approach or conform to the traditions of meaning and form as expressed in The Book of Songs, and then develop one’s own poetic style. The expression later came to include not just poetry but also literature and art.
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Zhuangzi (sometimes also referred to as Zhuang Zhou, 369?-286 BC) dreamed that he had become a butterfly. The story appears in “On Seeing Things as Equal” in the classic Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi dreamed that he had become a butterfly, but woke up to find he was still himself. In fact he was not sure whether he had dreamed of becoming a butterfly or a butterfly had dreamed of becoming him. Zhuangzi used this dream to remind people that there must be a relative difference between oneself and others, between dreaming and wakefulness, and between all other things. However, these boundaries were not absolute and could be broken. Things were in constant transformation and circulation, which he called “the transformation of things (wuhua 物化).”
This refers to evil prevailing over good and falsehood being mistaken for truth in literature and art as well as in social life. It is red, not purple, that was viewed as a truly proper color by the ancient Chinese. Confucius（551-479 BC）, upset by the loss of judgment over good and evil, and by the fact that vulgar music was taking the place of refined classical music in the Spring and Autumn Period, called for dispelling confusion and putting things in the right order. With this in mind, Liu Xie（465？-520） of the Southern Dynasties criticized some writers for abandoning Confucian teachings and catering to vulgar tastes. Scholars of later generations used this notion to reaffirm Confucian criteria and norms for literary creation.
DETAILED>>The term means that one should strive continuously to strengthen himself. Ancient Chinese believed that heavenly bodies move in accordance with their own nature in a vigorous and forever forward-going cycle. A man of virtue, who follows the law of heaven, should be fully motivated and work diligently to strengthen himself. This is the Chinese view on governance and self development, established with reference to the movement of heavenly bodies. Together with the notion that a true gentleman has ample virtue and carries all things, it constitutes the fundamental trait of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>This term means poetry creation should present the unembellished beauty of nature and the genuine sentiments of human beings. The original meaning of yingzhi (英旨) is good taste. Used as a literary term, however, it refers to charming content and aesthetic conception in poetry. In The Critique of Poetry, Zhong Rong（？-518？） of the Southern Dynasties called on poets to express their thoughts and sentiments in their own words and opposed borrowing expressions from ancient poets. He criticized the excessive attention to ornate language and tonal rhythms in the writing of five-character-per-line poetry. He maintained that spontaneously created poems of good taste were most valuable. The expressions “natural” and “simple and unaffected” in later literary criticisms contain Zhong Rong’s ideas.
This concept refers to literary geniuses creating timeless works of greatness and originality through meticulous honing of form and content. This phrase was used by Southern Dynasties literary critic Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons to give his heartfelt high praise of the works of Chuci (or odes of Chu) style created by Qu Yuan (340?-278? BC). Liu Xie emphasized the importance of following the classics, but at the same time, he also advocated for variations, pointing out that literary works needed constant innovation in both content and form. Works of Chuci style, represented by “Lisao,”were such masterpieces of literature that brought about completely new changes while following the tradition of The Book of Songs. Intense emotional catharsis and individual expressions break the gentle and refined traditional poetic style, which lead to unprecedentedly unusual themes and wild, totally uninhibited imaginations. They also developed free and varied sentence patterns, often using the auxiliary word xi (兮) at the end to highlight deep worries and lamentations from the heart, thus enforcing rhythm, breath and the lyrical functions of such modal particles. Qu Yuan, a literary genius, not only originated this new form and pattern of artistic rendition, but also inspired later writers to fully understand the significance of implementing changes and to be more creative in writing.
DETAILED>>This refers to the joy Ouyang Xiu ( 1007-1072 ), a Northern Song scholar, found when casting his thoughts to nature, so as to dispel his gloom. This concept was proposed in his essay “The Old Drunkard Pavilion.” Zuiweng (醉翁), literally “old drunkard,”was Ouyang Xiu’s alias. A supporter of Fan Zhongyan’s (989-1052) political reforms, or “new deal” in the Qingli period, Ouyang Xiu offended the powerful figures in the imperial court, who framed him with baseless accusations, and he was consequently demoted to a magistrate of Chuzhou Prefecture. Suffering such a political setback in his prime, Ouyang Xiu was despondent and depressed. Hence he took frequent outings and excursions to indulge in the natural environment of mountains and rivers, often intoxicated with drink while sharing his joys with the common folks. The joy of the old drunkard thus refers to his way of deriving pleasure from nature. It also connotes a sense of bitterness due to his demotion.
This term means to advocate stone-borne calligraphy while deprecating hand-copied script in mere imitation of famed calligraphers. It reflects a calligraphic trend toward natural variation and individual creativity. Ruan Yuan (1764-1849), for example, opposed the age-old tradition of lauding master calligraphers Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi alone and honoring the practice of learning calligraphy only by copying an exemplary sample preserved on paper. He held that stone-borne calligraphy, like hand-copied script, had its own distinctive merits. Bao Shichen (1775-1855) elaborated further on the features of stone-borne calligraphy, stating that it made up for the inadequacies in paper-borne calligraphy. Kang Youwei (1858-1927) saw the loss of original form when paper-borne copies passed from hand to hand over generations as justification for favoring stone-borne calligraphy. Calligraphy on stones, he maintained, could show its change and variety over different historical periods. He said that commentaries on calligraphy "helped to highlight the ways of the sages, urge the renewal of monarchical institutions, gain insight into human nature, and explore the laws of change for all things in the universe." Calligraphy should inspire a re-examination of history on the basis of present-day conditions and prepare people for drastic reform.
DETAILED>>This term means to honor teachers and respect rules. The “rules” are the laws of the (physical) universe, as well as the truths and moral principles of the world. Honoring teachers is a traditional Chinese virtue, and respecting rules is an important feature of traditional Chinese culture. A teacher is a vehicle for and a propagator of the rules; hence honoring teachers and respecting rules are two aspects of the same thing. Since ancient times, this has been regarded as an important precondition for the country to prosper and flourish. It is also an important indicator of good government.
DETAILED>>Here, bi (比) means to arrange and combine something in a certain way, and yue(乐) means to express through music. As a noun in its broad sense, yue refers to both the arrangement of sounds and the dance that accompanies the music. When a person experiences changes of feeling, triggered by external encounter, he will naturally make a variety of sounds. Simple and invariable, these sounds can be converted into tonic notes, or yin (音), such as gong (宫, corresponding roughly to 1 in the numbered musical notation), shang (商, corresponding to 2 ), jue (角, corresponding to 3 ), zhi (徵, corresponding to 5 ), and yu (羽, corresponding to 6 ), because of their differences in pitch, length, and speed. These notes are thus arranged and combined into a piece of music, or yue in a certain way. This quotation is an ancient Chinese theory on the origin of music.
DETAILED>>Moral fulfillment of one’s mind and heart means beauty in character. This term comes from the book Mencius. Mencius’ (372?-289 BC) understanding of beauty relates closely to Confucian morality. To his mind, beauty is one of the qualities on the rating scale for personality, which ranges from those of virtue, honorableness, beauty, magnanimity, saintliness, all the way up to the divine. Central to all these is moral fulfillment, which refers to the perfection, harmony and completeness of a person’s moral well-being. When a person is enriched by virtue and honorableness, he is filled with tremendous moral strength and thus attains a beauty of personality. In other words, beauty is a spiritual state of worthiness achievable when moral self-sufficiency becomes elevated into an aesthetic ecstasy, reflecting the Confucian ideal of perfect harmony between morality and aesthetics, or that between beauty and goodness. In literary criticism, this is shown via the argument that a writer should strive to be upright before he can create noble-spirited works. This term sets moral fulfillment as an important criterion for judging the quality of a literary work, and advocates a unity between artistic excellence and moral well-being.
DETAILED>>Ci poems are a literary form with a distinctive style and aesthetic value. Li Qingzhao ( 1084-1151 ?), in her essay “On Ci Poems,” argued that ci poems are different from other poems in that ci poems focus on expressing one’s emotions and convey musical beauty. She made a detailed analysis of the similarities and differences between ci poems and poems of other style. Ci poems were divided into level and oblique tones and stressed rhymes like other poems. However, ci poems pursued the beauty of melody and tune, that is, the beauty of music, not just beauty in form. Ci poems required that the combination of words and sounds as well as the rhyme and pronunciations of words should be suitable for singing according to scores. Thus, the ci poets mostly relied on their experiences and repeatedly chanted their ci poems until the ci poems they wrote conveyed musical beauty. This particular feature faded as ci poems became a distinct poetic genre no longer associated with music. This concept in ci poetry is mainly directed against Northern Song Dynasty poet Su Shi’s ( 1037-1101 ) view of writing ci poems in a general poetic style, blurring the boundary between poetry and lyrics. However, her views are still instructive for today’s songwriters.
DETAILED>>The concept means the use of concise language that conveys ample implications. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties pointed out that this was a shared characteristic of the Confucian classics, and he also regarded it as a basic rule for writing in general. Simple diction is relative to the goal of expressing ideas – avoiding superfluous language as long as the message is fully communicated. At the same time, in order to make the meaning clearer and easier for readers to understand, it does not exclude sufficient discussions and descriptions, such as the use of repetitious lyrics to amplify emotional expression in The Book of Songs. The concept is also used to refer to employing special literary devices to express sentiments hard to describe with words, which may evoke varied responses from different readers, as well as arouse abundant feelings in the individual reader.
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(A great state should assume a low posture, just as great rivers absorb the waters from countless tributaries. This was an important concept on handling relations between states, propounded by the ancient Chinese philosopher Laozi. Its core idea is that of qianxia (谦下), the virtue of lowering oneself in dealing with others. In Laozi's view, the key to whether or not states can coexist peacefully lies in whether or not great ones can refrain from bullying small and weak ones. If they can lower themselves and treat small states with modesty, they will display the capacity to accommodate the entire world. This will cause small states to trust them and look up to them, just as all tributaries flow toward great rivers. If great states accept and accommodate lesser ones and small states respect and look up to great ones, harmony will ensue and all will achieve their goals. This is related to the contemporary concept of “a shared future for humanity.”)
Referring to the heart and the sensory organs, this term was used by Mencius (372?-289 BC）to differentiate between men of virtue and petty men. Sensory organs such as the ears and eyes are called “minor organs” because they lack a capacity for thought and for cognition, and are hence easily directed by externalities when they come into contact with the latter. If a man were to only rely on his “minor organs,” he would be a captive of material desires and therefore become a petty man. The heart is the “major organ” which is naturally endowed with the capacity for thought and cognition. If a man is able to establish a dominant role for his “major organ,” then through the actions of his heart, he will be able to continually increase its inherent goodness and not have his judgment clouded by material desires, and thereby become a man of virtue.
DETAILED>>The “largest one”and the“smallest one” are concepts proposed by Hui Shi (370?-310?BC). He called that which is so large that it encompasses everything the“largest one,”and that which is so small that it is no longer divisible the“smallest one.”This is an acknowledgement that there are limits to the largeness and smallness of things, and a denial that there are infinite spatial sizes. On the other hand, regardless of whether it is the largest or smallest in size, each is a“one,”which hints at the idea that size is relative.
DETAILED>>The motion of Dao is to transform into the opposite or return to the original state. This concept was proposed by Laozi. Laozi believed that Dao is the fundamental rule of motion and change of things. The essence of this rule is “return,” which has two different implications. One indicates the contrary and opposite, namely, a thing in motion may transform into its opposite. The other suggests returning, meaning that a thing eventually returns to its initial state. This concept embodies the profound understanding of Laozi and Daoist scholars about the rule governing the motion of things.
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You can change a town, but you should not relocate the wells. Wells, where drinking water comes from, also refer to the social units of ancient China, where eight households shared one well. Humans cannot live without water, so places where they gather mostly have wells. Underground water determines the location of wells which cannot be changed easily. No matter how people’s houses were moved and rebuilt, the wells were immovable landmarks. The meaning implied here is that however much things are reshaped, the basic needs of people’s livelihood stay the same.
A state should regard righteousness as a fundamental benefit. The debate over righteousness and benefits has been a constant theme of discussion in the Chinese history of philosophy, because benefits were often seen as personal profits that might be wrongfully gained. Taking righteousness as the most important kind of benefit was a basic concept upheld by ancient philosophers. Neither a person nor a state can survive without benefits. However, ancients emphasized the integration of righteousness and benefits. They believed that benefits could be materialized only when combined with righteousness, and the two should stay in harmony. One must not seek personal gain at the expense of righteousness. According to this concept, a government must not vie with commoners for benefits, nor should a state vie with another state for benefits for itself only. One must always strive for mutual assistance, shared interests, balance, and win-win outcomes.
DETAILED>>The expressions are about the naturalness of literary and artistic works. The first one, “magically natural,” means that a literary or artistic work is completed naturally and achieves the acme of perfection without any sign of craft. The second, “overly crafted,” means that a work is meticulously crafted, but it is overly elaborate in style while lacking naturalness and spontaneity. “Magically natural” is used to refer to works accomplished by artists while “overly crafted” is used to describe works done by craftsmen. These two standards were proposed by Ming writer Li Zhi （1527-1602）in his “Random Thoughts,” which echoed his idea that writings must reflect the author’s true sentiments. Culturally, the distinction between “magically natural” and “overly crafted” is rooted in the Daoist thought of being harmonious with nature while forsaking excessive skills. Most Ming scholars favored literary naturalism and rejected elaboration and imitation.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the place where the Son of Heaven resided and conducted state affairs. Jing (京) originally meant a big hill or mound, representing the idea of being big or grand, and shi (师) meant a lot of people. To name the place where the the Son of Heaven resided and conducted state affairs jing or jingshi (京师) suggests that the capital is huge in size and expresses reverence towards the Son of Heaven.
DETAILED>>The term was first proposed by the Southern Dynasties literary critic Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons as a summary of the prevailing literary style in the Jian’an era at the end of the Han Dynasty. Through their works, the literary figures of the era gave free play to their talent in expressing their deep sorrows, frustration, and indignation while articulating their ambition, enthusiasm, pride, and tenacity. Running through their literature, Liu Xie observed, was a powerful spirit – the drive of their spiritual being that manifested itself in their literary creation as a passionate writing style. The spontaneous free overflow of the individual writer’s sentiments reflected an awareness of the impermanence of life, a heightened consciousness of the self, and a deep recognition of their agency and creativity.
DETAILED>>Harsh and cruel laws are more horrifying even than a tiger. The expression comes from The Book of Rites. The story goes that when Confucius （551-479 BC） was passing the foot of Mount Tai, he saw a woman weeping on a grave. He sent Zilu（542-480 BC） over to inquire. The woman said there were many tigers in the area and that she had lost three of her family to them, but because the local laws were not harsh, she did not wish to move away. Confucius sighed and said, “Tyranny is fiercer even than a tiger.” This is a criticism of harsh government, and an exhortation to rulers to reduce taxes and cut conscript labor, and to treat their subjects with compassion. It is an expression of Confucian principles of benevolent rule.
DETAILED>>This is one of the guiding principles in the implementation of the Zhou rites, as was recorded in The Book of Rites, a Confucian classic. The rituals were so cumbersome at the time that even the nobility found it difficult to observe them strictly. The commoners, mostly poor and busy earning their livelihood, were incapable of affording the money and energy needed to fulfill the numerous ceremonial requirements. Therefore, it was stipulated that observation of the rites not be mandatory for common people. It was only used to inspire them towards self-improvement. Although the Zhou rites had long since become history, the spirit of benevolence and tolerance shown in this principle was upheld in the ages that followed.
DETAILED>>Without the trust of the people, the government will not be stable. Chinese people have since antiquity put high value on “trust” (good faith). Confucius（551-479 BC） applied it to the relationship between officials and the people and saw it as a crucial factor in the stability of the state. What this means is that the government or the ruler should be honest in dealing with the people, not acting recklessly with force or power, so that the people will trust the authorities and act in good faith in regard to them. This is the solid basis and guarantee of state power. It is also an extension of the notion of “people are the foundation of the state.”
DETAILED>>The people consider food to be of the utmost importance. Shi (食 food) is a general term for the basic resources or material conditions essential to human life; tian (天 heaven) refers to the most important things or the basic elements which determine everything. Ancient Chinese believed that rulers not only had to understand that the ordinary people were the ruler’s “heaven” and the “foundation” of the state, they also had to understand what the ordinary people’s “heaven” was. Food is an indispensable basic material condition for the people to feed themselves, support their families, live peacefully, and fulfill stable jobs; of course it is also an indispensable basic material condition for a ruling group to mollify the people and ensure their livelihood. The bottom line for governing a country and helping its people is to guarantee the people food to eat and enough of it, and to guarantee the supply of basic resources needed for survival. This is an extremely pragmatic political concept.
DETAILED>>Bravery determines the victorious outcome of a battle. As a trait, bravery refers mainly to the fighting spirit, the will to win, and fearless heroism. It is characteristically a necessary condition or a pre-requisite that decides the victorious outcome of a battle. Such a trait should not only be found in an army, but also in the general public because the latter provides the social support to wage a war. Only from a heroic population can adequate manpower, materials, money, and moral that the war needs be drawn. This term implies the notion of a general war.
DETAILED>>It is better to die than to endure a life of humiliation. Since ancient times, the Chinese have “prized life” and “respected life.” At the same time, they felt that life itself was neither the goal nor the meaning of a person’s existence. If a conflict should arise between preserving an individual’s life and staying on the right path, he should sacrifice his life to uphold what is right rather than go on living ignobly. The essence of a virtuous life is having a correct perspective on life and death and a noble perspective on the value of life. At the moral level, Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals elucidated a“forcedlife” as one that is “not righteous.” This is the ultimate expression of the Chinese view of a virtuous life. In saying “give me decency or give me death,” it resembles “give me liberty or give me death.”
DETAILED>>Those who are adept at coping with defeat cannot be destroyed. No party in a war can always be sure of victory and never be defeated. An outstanding commander must not only be skilled at using his advantages when in a position of strength, he must also be adept at coping with disadvantages when in a position of weakness. When defeat is inevitable, he must take the initiative as much as possible and reduce losses to the minimum, thereby avoiding a catastrophic defeat which could lead to an overall breakdown, collapse and destruction. This expression exemplifies the dialectic of seeking to take the initiative when at a disadvantage; it is even more broadly applicable in contemporary society.
DETAILED>>This concept means that the ideal way to win a war is not through fighting. The purpose of starting a war is to defeat the enemy; but defeating the enemy does not necessarily require a war, nor is war the ultimate means to triumph over the enemy. Direct use of force is the last resort, not the preferred option. In the face of conflict and rivalry, one should develop more effective ways of winning victory without using force. Strive to fully prepare oneself in every way, and make oneself strong enough to respond to all eventualities, to the extent that no opponent will emerge. This is the fundamental way to win victory.
DETAILED>>The best physicians start treatment before the outbreak of an illness. Shanggong (上工) means skillful, first-rate doctors; weibing (未病) is when the slightest symptoms appear but before the actual onset of an illness. This important principle of Chinese medicine requires a doctor to have a thorough command of pathology and medicine, as well as an exceptional ability to anticipate, judge and manage the signs, nature and course of a disease. This enables early discovery, early prevention and early treatment, the essence of which is prevention – preventing the outbreak, metastasis, development and transmission of a disease. This is a fundamental concept of Chinese health and medicine, an example of Chinese wisdom in “preparing for rain before a storm” and “guarding against disaster before it occurs.”
The Confucian classics, such as The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals, are not only truthful and elegant in thought, but also rich in content and refined in style. Written for different purposes, these books vary greatly in style. Produced centuries ago, these classics were later rewritten by Confucian scholars according to their writing styles, and they were used in the Confucian education system. These classic writings had an important impact on all aspects of ancient Chinese politics, society, culture, and life. They were not only classics for moral education, but also set standards for scholarly writing.
DETAILED>>A poet will be able to produce a quality poem only when he is in a difficult and perilous environment, feeling suffocated with pent-up anger and frustration. The word qiong (穷 difficulty) does not mean the physical deprivation of material means but refers more broadly to adverse situations in life. Gong (工 quality) means artistically refined and beautiful. This idea was put forward by Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), a renowned leader in the literary world of the Northern Song Dynasty. He believes that adverse situations will enable poets to transcend the desire for worldly gains and assist them to depict with sophistication and insight scenes and people in the real world that have a universal significance. Ouyang Xiu’s theory not only continues but also develops Sima Qian’s (145 or 135?-? BC) “indignation spurs one to write great works” and Han Yu’s (768-824) “cry out against injustice.”
This concept no longer focuses on expressing the poet’s own indignation or frustration but seeks instead to shed light on the way a great poem comes into being. Later on, the proposition became a mainstream theory in literary criticism regarding the origins of literary masterpieces.
The twelve-tone equal temperament is a standard scale tuning in which an octave is divided into 12 equal semitones, with the interval value of any two adjacent semitones being the 12th root of 2. It was first proposed by Zhu Zaiyu (1536-1611),a musician of the Ming Dynasty. Zhu was the first scholar in the world to determine the twelve-tone equal temperament, and he not only created a new historical stage of Chinese temperament, but also set a milestone in the music history of the world. As early as the Zhou Dynasty, the ancient Chinese had discovered the twelve-tone temperament, but the temperament calculated by scholars over the ages in terms of equivalence could not enable modulation, concerning both key and mode changes. However, Zhu realized that the relationship between the pitches of the semitones was in fact an equiproportional relationship, and after clever calculations, he created a new method of dividing the temperament equally with geometric progression, which is exactly the same as the twelve-tone equal temperament of today, and has the advantage that it enables key and mode changes. Zhu also applied the principles of the twelve-tone equal temperament to musical instruments and designed and built some new instruments. The twelve-tone equal temperament is widely used in keyboard instruments all over the world and the piano is an instrument invented and tuned according to this principle.
DETAILED>>To become a good calligrapher, one must first set one’s mind at ease and dismiss all distracting thoughts. This is an argument raised by Cai Yong (133-192), a famous Eastern Han calligrapher, in his treatise “On Calligraphic Script.” He says that the art of calligraphy discloses the calligrapher's personal feeling, stressing the need to unleash one’s true self and to eliminate all of life's burdens and practical considerations. This view takes such actions as being crucial to the success of a calligraphic work.
To write is to record and release events, ideas, and feelings by means of written words. Shu (书) literally means “to write” and by extension “written works.”In the context of traditional Chinese culture, written works include all letters, notes, essays, calligraphic works, and books. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), author active during the Southern Dynasties, frequently takes an etymological approach to examining the features and functions of literary styles. He interprets the general significance of writing by pointing out that according to the classics of previous generations, the characters 书 and 舒 were the same in meaning and pronunciation. As a verb, the character 舒 literally means “to stretch” and by extension “to present”or “to express.” As a noun, it takes on the metaphorical meaning of mental relaxation and comfort. Writing, as the character 书 denotes, assumes the roles of depicting things, recording feelings, conveying ideas, expressing emotions, relieving melancholy, and so on. Every person has a clear need for self-expression. The externalization of one’s internal state may be meaningful in cognition, practice, and aesthetics, while the realization of such meanings in cognition and practice will result in further aesthetic significance. Starting from the original meanings of the characters, Liu proceeds to affirm the essential significance of all literary styles and means of literary and artistic expressions, summarizes the basic functions of writing and literary and artistic creation, and in a broader sense emphasizes the aesthetic features of writing and the aesthetic need of humanity. His views mark the initial self-awareness of Chinese literary theory.
DETAILED>>The term originally meant that in exercising governance, a ruler should act with benevolence and righteousness and not be tempted to seek immediate gains. Later, it came to mean the need to follow the righteous way, namely, sound principles or approaches, instead of seeking immediate gains. Such gains are not only petty and transitory in nature and unsustainable, but may also cause irreversible adverse consequences. Those who aim high should therefore focus on the big picture and long-term overall interests. They should always follow the righteous way and never allow themselves to be distracted by petty gains. The underlying message of this term is that no great accomplishment can be made quickly and easily and the righteous way must be followed.
DETAILED>>Writing is done mainly to convey a meaning. Here, yi(意) refers to what an article is essentially about. This is an important theoretic notion in ancient Chinese literary theory. It was often emphasized in essays of the Song, Jin, Yuan and Ming dynasties and accepted by scholars of later generations. According to this theory, the meaning is weightier than the rhetoric; it should always be put first. The theory is closely associated with the ideas of writing to illuminate ideas and writing to convey ideas first raised by Tang and Song scholars. It continues the fine literary theoretical tradition of ancient China. However, the word yi covers far wider implications than dao(道) or truth.
This concept, used by Huang Zunxian (1848-1905) of the late Qing Dynasty to promote reform in poetry, advocates that one should write what one sees and thinks, unrestricted by the old writing style or traditional moral values. Such writings are more natural and free in expression, and can express all new things and new ideas. This approach to writing had a significant influence on the later vernacular language movement.
DETAILED>>Speech and writing come from feelings and thoughts. This concept is used by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532? ) of the Southern Dynasties to explain the origin of literary creation in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It suggests that feelings and thoughts are the sources of language and all literary creation as well. Only when imbued with true feelings and thoughts will writers be able to produce good prose and poetry. It reflects ancient Chinese people’s emphasis on the inner world of writers as creative subjects. Liu Xie also makes it clear that the process whereby words come from the heart is natural rather than artificial.
DETAILED>>The purpose of meting out punishment is to eliminate punishment, which is an extension of the Confucian idea of “rule by virtue.” The Confucian point of view is that education by rites and music is the main means of state governance, and penalties are only auxiliary. The aim of governance is to educate the people through these two means, educating and transforming them so that they adopt virtuous conduct and abide by the laws, thus bringing great order to all under heaven and making punishments unnecessary, that is to say, eliminating punishments. It is also the ideal state attained within the framework of “rule by virtue.” This represents the dialectical point of view of the unity of means and aims.
Human nature has nothing to do with good or evil, which is a view held by ancient Chinese people. The philosopher Gaozi in the Warring States Period was one of the advocates of this “neither good nor evil” theory. Here, human nature refers to the in-born attributes of a human being. According to Gaozi, a person’s inherent desires directed to the outside world reflects no more than physical needs, such as the need for food and for sex. Such instincts are irrelevant to ethics, free of good or evil. A person’s good or evil traits result from cultivation and social influence in life after birth. People who are exposed to good influences tend to do good things. People who live in a bad environment tend to do bad things.
DETAILED>>It means to clear mundane desires from one's mind so as to move freely in the world. This expression comes from Zhuangzi, in which it is proposed by way of a conversation between an official named Shinan Yiliao and the Duke of Lu. It is argued in this conversation that people can trace the origin of their worries to their desire for external objects as well as their concern over gain and loss. Therefore, to rid themselves of worry and concern, people must overcome their greed. Only by freeing oneself from extraneous concerns can one adapt to the vicissitudes of life without being burdened and harmed by anything external. Such an attitude to life is what is meant by freeing one's mind to enjoy the world.
DETAILED>>This expression means to follow the natural meridian as a constant rule. This comes from Zhuangzi’s work “On Nurturing Life.” Du (督) refers here to the meridian along the human spine, central yet without form. Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) held that the laws governing natural phenomena had the same characteristics. He differentiated this from narrow-minded and conventional moral laws. “Following the Du meridian as the law” means following a natural law, which is fair and invisible, and allows man to traverse among all things under heaven without running contrarily to them.
DETAILED>>The notion that having a feeling of shame gives rise to courage comes from the saying that “to have a feeling of shame is to be near to having courage.” Having a feeling of shame means to be ashamed of one’s own mistakes as well as to hate the misbehavior of others. Mencius （372？-289 BC） believed this to be one of the basic things humans must do. In Confucian thought courage is one of three universal virtues along with wisdom and love for others. Linking shame and courage was meant to impel people to face their shortcomings squarely and work hard for improvement and perfection. The concept embodies the spirit of individuals, companies, organizations, ethnic groups, and the whole nation in achieving self-respect, self-motivation, and self-improvement.
DETAILED>>This concept stresses the civilizing role of music. Rites and music are means that everyone should often use to regulate their conduct and for introspection. When one grasps the essence of music, one will naturally follow the nature of music – harmony deep inside. Then personality traits associated with harmony, such as geniality, integrity, kindness, and honesty, will come forward, and fill one’s heart with happiness. When one is truly happy, one will strive to retain it. Long cultivated thus, one can resemble heaven, who speaks no words but never lets people down, or act like gods, who do not rage but are held in awe.
DETAILED>>This term shows that poetry should indirectly and mildly advise a ruler against wrongdoing. The critic should resort mainly to tactful and sensitive wording, trying not to appear blunt or offensive when admonishing the ruler. The term first appeared in the “Introductions to Mao’s Version of The Book of Songs”; it was created by Confucian scholars in summarizing the various means of expression in The Book of Songs. Later, it became a criterion for measuring all works of art and literature. The core message is that, while poetry can be used to criticize or satirize a ruler and also to show discontent with social reality, a mild or indirect way should be employed, namely analogy, association, simile, and metaphor. This view is a manifestation of Confucian political ethics in the field of literary criticism.
DETAILED>>Confucianists believe that the aim of a government official is to have people live in peace and contentment. Officials must always bear in mind the people’s well-being, be concerned about their suffering, and do their best to keep them free from misery. This embodies the Confucian concept of “benevolent governance,” a fine Chinese ethical tradition and the responsibility of those with lofty ideals, working for social prosperity and the people’s well-being. This concept is well expressed in the line “Worry before everyone else has to worry, and feel happy only after everyone else can feel happy” in “Memorial to Yueyang Tower” written by Fan Zhongyan ( 989 -1052 ), an eminent minister of the Song Dynasty.
Confucian classics penetrate the depths of the human mind. A classic becomes one because it serves as an example in many ways. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties discussed the characteristics and achievements of the Confucian classics in the chapter “Use of Confucian Classics as Guidance.” According to Liu, the classics contained Confucian thought and played a very important role in moral education. He believed that the Confucian classics had a profound understanding of human nature, delving into the subtle and innerpsychological activities of human beings and capturing the essence of writings. This view creatively captures the depth of the human mind through writing, and set the trend for later generation scholars to give expression to the human mind through writing.
DETAILED>>The law is just for all and it must be the common standard for all behavior. Since the character 法 (law) came into existence, it has included the meaning “leveled as even as water,” while ping (平) means being just, fair, and it also refers to common guidelines for all. Once a law is established, it applies equally to all. Any deviant or improper implementation will undermine its basic function so that it loses its true meaning. Without standards to guide human behavior, society will fall into disarray. This concept of judicial fairness has been commonly upheld by the Chinese since ancient times.
DETAILED>>“Courage” is what it takes to go into a battle. It means the fighting spirit of an army, its will to win and its fearless heroism. The word “courage” not only refers to the spirit of individual soldiers, but also that of the entire army. It is a necessary condition or pre-requisite for winning the victory. Going into battle is dangerous. Without sufficient courage, other favorable conditions will hardly matter. What is implied is the following military wisdom: Of all the factors needed for a victory, the human factor is of primary importance; of all the human factors required, human spirit is of primary importance.
DETAILED>>The term means to eliminate animosity in order to turn war into peace and turn conflicts into amity. Gan (干) and ge (戈) are two weapons of war which were used for defense and attack respectively in ancient China. Yu (玉) and bo (帛) mean jades (such as jade tablets and jade ornaments) which were gifts exchanged between feudal lords and tribute paid to monarchs. In time, yu and bo acquired the meaning of peace and co-existence. This term reflects the Chinese people’s long-standing aspiration for peace and goodwill to dissolve conflict and violence.
DETAILED>>The more complete rendering of this concept is“while seeking to establish oneself,one strives also to establish others; while seeking to enhance oneself, one strives also to enhance others.”The concept was coined by Confucius (551-479BC) as an expression of his doctrine of being considerate, which requires people to understand and be considerate of others with their own feelings and aspirations, and putting themselves in the position of others. In terms of preferences and pursuits, if one wants to be established and enhance oneself, one must understand that others may want the same, and should assist them to do so.
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A person of virtue takes righteousness as a fundamental principle to guide his or her acts. A “person of virtue” refers to dignitaries or persons with great talent or moral quality. Righteousness means morality and justice, as well as derivative concepts such as social norms and duties. This concept demonstrates that the qualities of the elite are shown by their righteous acts and social responsibilities.
Literally, this term means that a person who is able to find a teacher and is eager to learn may become a king. It indicates that a modest person who is eager to learn from others may accomplish great feats. King originally refers to the one who holds the supreme power of a nation, but it can also refer to a person who has made tremendous achievements and realized a great goal. This term has two conceptions. First, a person with the supreme power of a nation must not lord it over others, thinking he is always right; instead he should be modest, and be courteous to the worthy people. Thus he will win the people’s support and accomplish great achievements. Second, only when a person is modest and eager to learn from others, will he be able to broaden his knowledge, improve himself, and eventually become a person of great strength.
DETAILED>>This is an important concept put forward by Sunzi, the great strategist of ancient China. No matter what their position or level, the people in a state, an army or even a work unit should share the same aspiration, will and goal. Only then can all their wisdom be pooled together and their combat capacity be brought to the full. This concept stresses the importance of human spirit and solidarity, embodying one of the essential Chinese conceptions–“people first.”
DETAILED>>Fish cannot survive in the water that is too clear. With no plankton in water, fish have nothing to feed on and are bound to die. This is a natural phenomenon. Drawing inspiration on it, ancient Chinese believed that one should not set the bar too high for a person or something, criticize a person for failing to be perfect, or be too strict with others. Instead, they held that one should be tolerant and inclusive. This term echoes the thinking of "having great virtue and carrying all things."
“Opportune time,” which originally referred to the favorable weather at the time of war, now generally refers to various temporal advantages, including weather, timing, opportunity, and so on. “Geographic advantage,” which originally referred to advantageous positions in battle, now refers to generally various favorable spacial conditions, including terrain, position, location, and such. “Unity of the people,” which originally referred to popular support, unity of all ranks, and societal solidarity, now refers in general to advantages in personnel. Ancient Chinese believed that these three were the most important factors for success. Among them, “unity of the people” is decisive because “opportune time is not as valuable as geographic advantage, and geographic advantage is not as valuable as unity of the people.” The saying reflects the three fundamental dimensions of a problem the Chinese people take into consideration: time (opportunity), space (environment), and people. It reflects the basic notion of putting people at the center of everything.
A ruler who aspires to the kingly way treats the people as his tian (天) or the highest authority. Broadly speaking, this means that a leader who wishes to accomplish great things must consider the people to be the most important. The term wangzhe (王者) originally referred to rulers who unified the country through benevolent governance, that is, rulers who had great achievements. The word tian represents the highest authority, an allusion to that which is of the greatest importance. The foundation of a country lies in the will of its people; the support or opposition of its people is the fundamental factor which determines whether a country or regime thrives or dies, whether it flourishes or is supplanted. Leaders who wish to achieve great things must attach the highest importance to the interests of the majority of people if it is to win their broad support. This concept is aligned with the concepts “the people are the foundation of the state” and “the will of the people is the foundation of the state.”
DETAILED>>Humans hold a distinctive position in the panoply of life, recognized as the beings possessing the most vibrant spirit. This concept, originating from The Book of History, epitomizes the ancient Chinese perspective on humanity and serves as the philosophical bedrock for notions of human compassion and care in governance. A manifestation of the inherent humanism in Chinese thought, this concept remains relevant today, with contemporary ideas extolling “human-centric” or “people-first” principles drawing from this deep well of wisdom.
DETAILED>>All creative literary expressions draw on works of earlier writers. This concept, put forward by Huang Tingjian ( 1045-1105 ), a Northern Song literati, states that literary creativity should be based on extensive reading of works of earlier writers. At the same time, one should turn iron into gold by making creative use of the expressions and meanings of such works. The relationship between inheritance and origin in works is generally reflected in the use of allusions and the adaptation of expressions, phrases and imagery from earlier works. However, one should not just quote expressions, phrases and imagery from these works, nor blindly copy them, so as not to fall into the trap of retrogression. Therefore, Huang's concept needs to be handled carefully.
Virtuous people are sure to write fine works which will be passed on to later generations. According to Confucianism, the moral character of a writer determines the value of his work, virtuous people would naturally write well, but those who wrote well might not necessarily be virtuous. Therefore, authors should write to disseminate moral values; virtue and writings should be consistent. However, later Confucian scholars sometimes overemphasized the influence that ethics and the authors’ moral character had on their writings to the neglect of the characteristics and values of literary creation per se.
DETAILED>>This saying comes from the book Xunzi, which is named after the philosopher Xunzi (313?–238BC). He believed that heaven and mankind each have their own duties and that the operations of heaven, earth and human affairs follow their respective laws. In this sense, we should not consider either societal peace and turbulence or fortune and misfortune as the reward or punishment of heaven. Hence Xunzi opposed extolling or even ingratiating oneself with heaven in exchange for benefit. He also pointed out that in the course of natural evolution heaven nourishes all things and endows humans with their body, emotion, and desire. Therefore, one needs to grasp the endowments of heaven and make use of them in accordance with the laws.
DETAILED>>Someone who deeply cares about the people will have a strong desire to seek out talent. “Talent” refers to outstanding people, namely those with high morals and skills; “the people” refers to the general public, and “loving the people” means “caring about the people.” The term “love” as used here does not refer to personal morality or individual affection; it refers to how administrators must govern a country well so as to ensure the basic well-being and interests of its people, to spare them from suffering and unwarranted infringements, and to enable them to live stably and work happily. To achieve this, administrators must rely on outstanding people for the country's governance; hence administrators who truly care about the people will of course have a strong desire to find talent. “To love the people” is fundamental, and “to seek talent” is its specific means of implementation.
DETAILED>>Warfare should seek a quick victory and should not be prolonged. This was a principle of warfare proposed by Sunzi, the ancient military strategist. It is of particular importance to the party that initiates a war. If the war continues without a decisive outcome, it will result in poor morale, weakened combat ability, an increase in various types of consumption, and difficulty in maintaining supply lines. Ultimately it will be hard to achieve the aims of the war and losses may even exceed gains; complications may also ensue which endanger the country's security. This is a comprehensive concept of war which incorporates political, economic and other factors.
DETAILED>>A state that has a strong army but acts without righteousness is bound to be destructive. Since ancient times, all rulers with high ideals have pursued a wealthy state and a strong army. However, there is a more important principle than this, i.e., the principle of righteousness which is a supreme ethical pursuit of the Chinese nation that is above all material interests. A strong army that practices no righteousness is bound to bring harm.
DETAILED>>It is not scarcity that we should fear, but inequality. These words, an underpinning principle put forth by Confucius (551-479 BC), shed light on his philosophy of governance. In this paradigm, “scarcity” symbolizes the shortage of land, population, or wealth, while “equality” epitomizes fairness and balance – each person receiving their fair share. Confucius argued that the accumulation of societal resources and the growth of wealth, while significant, should not be a ruler’s primary objective. Instead, the focus ought to be on the just and equitable distribution of resources and wealth. By doing so, rulers could maintain a balanced state for both society and nation. In the modern context, this wisdom serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of fairness and justice. Even in a society teeming with wealth, stark wealth disparity can inflame social conflict and, if left unchecked, precipitate societal fragmentation.
DETAILED>>The full quote from Guanzi reads: “When the granaries are full, the people follow appropriate rules of conduct, and when there is enough to eat and wear, the people know honor and shame.” Here “granaries” and “eat and wear” mean the material conditions of life, while “rules of conduct” and “honor and shame” represent the social and moral principles of a society, as well as the systems and spiritual culture that underpin it. The quote highlights the relationship between material life and morality, that is to say, the former is the basis for the latter, and morality and social norms are the product of a certain degree of material development. Without the basic assurances for life, the best systems will not be followed, and the moral standards of the people will remain low. At all times, governance should focus first on improving the material conditions of a society. This is a very practical concept of state governance.
DETAILED>>Always keeping oneself joyful is the way to cultivate one’s mind and character. This proposition was advanced by the Ming-dynasty philosopher Wang Yangming (1472-1529), who believed that one should maintain a joyful mood and always stay positive. Even when suffering from illness, enduring hardships, or facing slanders and insults, one should never let go such an attitude. The ability to remain joyful in all circumstances is ultimately determined by one’s self-control and personal cultivation. Wang Yangming was once humiliated by public flogging at court for speaking out to uphold justice, and was subsequently banished to Longchang Courier Station in Guizhou Province. This was a place of extremely harsh conditions with toxic fog and a sickening miasma, as well as poisonous snakes and wild beasts lurking around. Nevertheless, he claimed, “I was never depressed for a single day.” Instead of ruining his mood and crushing his spirit, the brutal asperities enabled him to hone his theory of “innate knowledge of good,” demonstrating his highly cultivated mind and rock-solid self-control.
DETAILED>>According to the Confucian belief of unity of heaven and humanity, all human activities conform with the laws governing celestial and terrestrial movement. The creation of qi (vital energy), the product of the convergence of all the natural elements between heaven and earth, generates and nurtures all living things. With this in mind, sages composed grand pieces of music, thereby giving rise to the idea that grand music reflects harmony between heaven, earth, and all things. This concept and the concept that grand rites reflect the movement of heaven and earth complement each other. The latter one means sages formulate grand rites in accordance with the order of heaven, earth, and all things and the norms governing them. The complementary functions of music and rites play a major role in pacifying and unifying the minds of the people and safeguarding and maintaining public order. According to Confucianism, human beings, deities and ghosts as well as all other living things may undergo changes but will never deviate from the fundamental norms governing their movement, thus everything is in its proper place.
DETAILED>>These concepts refer to different degrees of commonalities and differences. Hui Shi (370?-310?BC) first proposed the concepts of “major commonality and difference” and “minor commonality and difference.” He felt that there could be big commonalities and small differences, or small commonalities and big differences between things. However, these are only relative commonality and difference, and they are “minor commonality and difference.” On the other hand, at a fundamental level, all things can be said to be alike, and they can also be said to be different. From the maximally large“largest one”to the minimally small“smallest one,”things always differ in size–this is the “ultimate difference”between them. Yet both the “largest one” and the “smallest one”are also“one”–this is the“ultimate commonality”of all things. It is the“ultimate commonality”and the “ultimate difference”that form the “major commonality and difference.”
DETAILED>>This is a saying of Hanfeizi (280?-233BC), who took the Daoist binary relation between Dao (the Way) and wu (物 the thing) and developed it into a ternary relation with an addition of li (理 pattern). He believed that li describes the attributes and principles of each and every thing in the world in terms of length, size, shape, solidity, weight, color, and so forth, and thus differentiates one thing from another. Dao, the fundamental law, generates all the things and encompasses their patterns.
DETAILED>>A person who repeatedly acts immorally will only end up in total failure. Buyi (不 义) is an act which violates the principles of yi (义 righteousness). Righteousness is the moral code broadly accepted by a society； it is synonymous with yi (宜 propriety), meaning the observance of what is fit and proper. The Chinese have championed righteousness since ancient times, believing that all acts, whether those of individuals or of a nation, should be based on righteousness. Anyone who breaks laws, harms the country or the people, or commits numerous acts of wrongdoing will come to no good end.
DETAILED>>Law being a means of loving the people suggests that laws and institutions are for the benefit of the people. It is an important guiding principle of the Legalist school. The profound significance of this is: Changing laws and institutions or establishing new ones must have “loving the people” as its basis and aim. The Legalists are known for advocating harsh laws and severe punishments, in contrast to Confucian “rule by virtue,” but at a deeper level they are not so much at odds with such concepts as “the people being the foundation” and “benevolence.”
Only by being fair can one distinguish between right and wrong; only with moral conduct can one establish authority. These mottoes were used as reminders by upright officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Gong (公) means fairness and opposing pursuit of selfish interest. Ming (明) means discernment, namely, the ability to distinguish right from wrong. Lian (廉) means free from corruption. Wei (威) means authority or credibility. Today, these teachings have remained important principles which office holders should abide by. They mean that governance should be exercised in a fair and just way and within the framework of laws and regulatory procedures of the state. Officials should lead by example, have moral integrity and be self-disciplined; they should put public interests above their own and not use their power to pursue personal gain.
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If a country has no
people harboring resentment against those in power, it is a country that can be
called a strong country. This is a Legalist definition of a strong state. The
Legalists were pragmatic, emphasizing farming and military fighting, a rich state
with a strong army. However, they did not at all measure the strength of states
by their hard power alone but also by their soft power. The essence of soft
power is the people feeling no hatred of those in power. The prerequisite of no
such hatred is justice, fairness and equality in the country and the result is
national unity. This term is the Legalist expression of the notion that “people are the foundation of the state.”
A man of virtue seeks to establish and practice dao rather than pursue his own livelihood. Men of virtue originally referred to males from the ruling class and aristocracy, but later referred generally to virtuous and talented individuals. dao here means fundamental principles and way of life; “livelihood” means basic resources for subsistence. As social elites, men of virtue should take upon themselves to establish and practice dao. That is not an excessive requirement for them. As men of virtue, they should not put daily necessities at priority. Instead, they should think about the expectations placed upon them as social elites to lead the common folks.
A doctor, no matter how good he is, cannot cure a fatal illness. No power is unlimited. No matter how skillful a doctor is and how advanced the medical facilities are, it is not possible to cure all diseases. There are always some diseases that cannot be cured and some lives that cannot be saved. This is very unfortunate yet inevitable. People should face this reality rationally and calmly. The expression is also used to remind people of force majeure and the limitations of human beings.
DETAILED>>Conceit and complacency cause failure whereas modesty and prudence bring success. Ancient Chinese believed that all things were in constant change, and advantages might turn into disadvantages, and vice versa. One should keep pace with the times, work hard and never be complacent about what has been achieved; and one should keep a low profile, be modest, and be eager to overcome his weakness. The same applies to either an individual or a nation. This belief echoes the Chinese character of endeavoring ceaselessly for self-improvement.
This quotation, from the chapter “Epistolary Writing” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, means that language is a necessary means of conveying the spiritual landscape of human beings generation after generation, that writings are meaningful and useful in faithfully recording and sincerely expressing human thoughts and emotions, and that all words written down shall be used as outlets for true feelings and views, rather than manifestations of superficiality or vehicles for deceit and dissimulation. “Pent-up feelings” here refers not only to worries for oneself, but also to concerns over the status quo and the future of the country, the nation, and the people. “Elegance” describes one’s manners and temperament, which radiate touching appeal as a result of one’s emotions and will. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), the Southern Dynasties author of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, holds that the significance of writing lies in the wide and lasting dissemination of the spirit and elegance of sages.
DETAILED>>A person skilled at warfare will achieve victory by using or creating a strategic position favorable to himself. A “strategic position” refers to the overall situation or state resulting from the deployment and actions of two opposing forces. A strategic position can be enormously powerful and is a critical factor which affects victory and defeat. A favorable strategic position is not ready-made; it is created by the logical allocation or deployment of forces, efforts to take the initiative in employing flexible strategies and tactics, maximizing one’s own strengths and minimizing the opponent’s strengths. Planning, creating, and using a strategic position that is advantageous for oneself and disadvantageous for the foe is an important responsibility of military commanders. This concept was later extended beyond the military sphere and became part of leadership wisdom for business and governmental affairs.
DETAILED>>This saying means that all the people in the world are as close as brothers. The Four Seas are the East, West, South, and North seas. The ancient Chinese believed that heaven was round and the earth was square, with China in the middle of the earth, which was surrounded on all four sides by the Four Seas. “Within the Four Seas” refers to the world inhabited by humans, which was also called “all under heaven,” referring to the whole country or the whole world. This saying shows the inclusive and broad mind of the Chinese and their compassion, love and friendship towards other human beings.
DETAILED>>A person can be respected even though he may have a low social status. This concept was brought forth in the Confucian classic The Book of Rites. The term fufan (负贩) refers to a small trader who bears a toting pole on his shoulder to do business, and generally refers to people at the bottom of society. They were usually considered to be of low moral standards, but in reality this is not true. In accordance with rites, everyone should behave humbly and respect others, no matter how rich or poor they are. The rich should not be arrogant and extravagant, while the poor should try to improve their lot and be self-respecting. The dignity of human beings is based on rites. The concept embodies the spirit of reverence and equality.
DETAILED>>In the concept that even the Son of Heaven has something to respect, “something to respect” originally refers to a person or thing more honored than the Son of Heaven, and by extension, to a person or thing honored by him. Those respected by the Son of Heaven include his father, brothers, ancestors, the law, and Heaven which has a most sacred and ultimate meaning. All the above factors boil down to virtue or morality. The position of the Son of Heaven is supreme, but it does not constitute the basis for the supremacy of threigning person. His supremacy is based on his virtue or morality, that is, based on his virtue being commensurate or in line with morality. This is what earns him respect. Otherwise, he is not to be respected. Therefore, the Son of Heaven must also have constraints, and must also cultivate himself like the common people do so that he has the appropriate virtues ensuring that what he says and does is in line with morality. This is a typical embodiment of the Chinese people’s attention to virtue and morality.
DETAILED>>This saying is recorded in Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals and is attributed to Zichan (?-522 BC), a senior minister of the State of Zheng during the Spring and Autumn Period. Here, the way of heaven refers to the law of the heavenly phenomena, including the movement of celestial bodies, while the way of man denotes the norms of human affairs. By drawing a sharp distinction between the remoteness of the way of heaven and the closeness of the way of man, Zichan sought to make clear that human affairs have nothing to do with astral movements and to reject any correspondences or causal connection between heavenly phenomena and human affairs.
DETAILED>>Quoted from The Book of Rites, a Confucian classic, this proposition justified the necessity of cultivating aristocratic virtues, which served as a reminder that aristocrats should not take pride in their noble birth but work hard to improve their social status and realize from such improvement that nobility is defined by virtue rather than birth. In the context of ancient China, this proposition acquired a positive role in negating the decisiveness of descent and implying that all men are created equal in terms of character. To put it another way, Heaven does not create one superior or inferior to another.
DETAILED>>Music, as a way of expressing the inner feelings of human beings, allows no expression of false sentiment. According to the Confucian views on music education, a person whose heart is touched by what happens externally will naturally express his inner feelings through music. Therefore, music faithfully reflects the emotions and will of human beings, something that cannot be falsified. Thus, if a person thinks good things or does good deeds and rejects undesired temptations, he can achieve inner peace and harmony. The voices made or music composed by such people are naturally sincere and elegant. However, if a person behaves in an undesirable way, the voices made or tunes composed by him are unpleasant. No person with unacceptable thoughts can create sincere and elegant music.
DETAILED>>If two people or armies cross paths on a narrow road, the boldest will prevail. This was part of the military thinking of Zhao She, a well-known general of the State of Zhao during the Warring States Period. He meant that if one meets the enemy and cannot avoid a confrontation, one must rouse one’s fighting spirit, courage and resolve to win, and that this is actually what makes victory possible. The term has the similar meaning to the expression “fighting is based on courage.” The spirit also applies to other periods of difficulty or hardship.
DETAILED>>The expression “to purposefully put oneself in a life-threatening circumstance and risk death to achieve victory” is proposed by the ancient military thinker Sunzi. The term sidi (死地), or life-threatening danger, specifically refers to a situation in battle where he must fight hard or die, which will eventually help him to win against all obstacles and survive. This type of life-or-death scenario is a powerful way to motivate soldiers to fight bravely. It is therefore a recognized battlefield tactic to achieve victory by putting soldiers in circumstances where they face certain death. This military principle has been widely applied to various competitive activities in society at large.
DETAILED>>The expression comes from Mozi and The Analects. Followers of Mozi and Confucian ethics admired those who could keep their promises and whose actions were resolute. They believed speech and action should match. However, Confucius (551-479BC) and Mencius (372?-289BC) took this further to apply to rulers who, only by being as good as their words and trustworthy in their speech, could earn the confidence and support of their subjects who, in turn, would be truthful with them. For Confucius, this principle, rather than be followed too rigidly, should in practice be applied on the basis of what is ethical under specific conditions and after careful weighing the pros and cons. Later, the expression came to refer to honest speech and firm action, keeping one’s word, and also “suit action to word.”
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What one talks or writes about should have a sound basis and substance; the language and words he uses should fit the actual context. Hyperbole, exaggeration or falsehood should be opposed. In doing anything, one must have perseverance and focus, stick to principle and honor his words. One should preserve until the goal is met and must never give up halfway. This term also means that one should take a realist approach, seek truth and act in good faith.
DETAILED>>This saying comes from The Book of Changes. “The alternation of yin and yang”indicates the existence of both yin and yang, a pair of opposites that lie in all things between heaven and earth, including human affairs. Their alternation and interaction lead to the changes of things. Such changes so caused are called the Way. Furthermore, the sixty-four hexagrams in The Book of Changes symbolize all things between heaven and earth and embody the Way of the alternation of yin and yang through combination of the two yaos (the unbroken line standing for yang and the broken line for yin).
DETAILED>>The principles or methods to win a war must be based on the success in politics, that is to say, military outcome is determined by the strength of politics. Ancient Chinese strategists and legalists looked at war from the angle of politics, regarding war as political in essence and an extension of politics. Efficient governance and social harmony among the people were the decisive factors of winning a war. That “the methods of warfare must be based on the success in politics” is an expression of the same idea as the Prussian military strategist Carl von Clausewitz (1780-1831) in his On War when he suggested that war was the continuation of politics by another mean, but the former is 2,000 years earlier than the latter.
This is the proposition from a famous military theorist and politician in ancient times named Wu Qi (440?-381BC). Literally, the term is capable of yielding two interpretations. First, it emphasizes the importance of “retaining the victory” or “holding on to the result,” with the implication that it is relatively easy to win a war but more difficult to keep the advantage of a victory. Secondly, the saying highlights the importance of taking control in a war. A charging army has the initiative and therefore is relatively easy for them to win, whereas the defenders are in a passive position. They can only win by turning their passive position into an active one, and for that reason, they have relatively greater difficulty. Furthermore, there are two deeper implications embedded. First, never launch a war in a careless manner because wars, especially when launched frequently, are disastrous to a warring nation and its people. Secondly, in order to keep the victory in the long run, a nation should focus on more essential priorities such as “rites and righteousness.” Based on this expression, later generations have come up with such modified sayings as “it is easy to launch a business but difficult to stay in business,” in order to warn people not to be so content with what they have achieved that they become idle and indulgent in their comfort. Instead they should stay true to their original aspiration, aim high, be perseverant, and keep striving.
DETAILED>>Governance of a country is like playing music, which pursues harmony. This concept is first found in Discourses on Governance of the States. It is an important part of music theory from the pre-Qin period and highlights the similarity between the two. Traditional Chinese music contains five musical notes. Musical instruments, varying in volume, will not be deemed perfect unless they sound concordant and poised, complementing and echoing each other. In governing a country, the ruler should also strike an equilibrium between different voices and forces. So far as music itself is concerned, “harmony” does not mean homogeneity; rather, it refers to a diversity of melodies integrated into a harmonious whole. A uniform voice is unpleasant and dull. A harmonious voice, on the other hand, not only provides a delightful aesthetic experience but also enhances people’s moral well-being. This will make them mild in temperament, thus creating an ideal situation of social and political stability.
DETAILED>>Masters of landscape painting are able to depict natural scenery which has vast breadth and distance on an inches-wide scroll. The artist does not just copy a scenery, but rather creates a work of art which integrates his artistic accomplishments and displays his heart and mind. The artist omits superfluous details and brings close a distant landscape with a broad perspective. This idea also applies to poetry criticism. Its most important element is “power,” which means that general layout and core message give poems, paintings, and other works of art a dramatic effect, expressiveness and appeal, rather than paying excessive attention to details. To achieve this, artists should not merely duplicate or imitate a landscape; they should personally experience it, expand their horizons, feel the natural wonders and transcend worldly concerns.
Governing a big country is like cooking small fish. This is a fundamental principle of state governance based on the concept of “non-action” advocated by Laozi. When cooking small fish, one needs to mix various kinds of ingredients, carefully control time of cooking and degree of heating, so that every small fish is equally tasty. One should not stir the fish too much in cooking so that they will not fall apart into small pieces. Similarly, as a big country has a vast territory, a large population, and wide differences among regions and social groups, those who govern the land must be meticulous and thoughtful and take all factors into consideration, so that their policies and measures benefit everyone. Once fundamental policies for governance are adopted, those who govern should not intervene excessively in social activities.
DETAILED>>According to the Confucian views on rites, music and music education, music arises from the human mind and moves the people. A country enjoying peace and order makes people feel peaceful and harmonious. In an era of peace and stability, people will naturally be in a peaceful mood, which finds expression in the idyllic and merry styles of music created by them. The idyll and merriness of music helps foster a fine social atmosphere by creating serenity and mental harmony among the public. In this sense, music has a political function, as it helps maintain order and cultivate morals and mores.
DETAILED>>Seeking novelty without deviating from the proper way is a fundamental principle for writing and learning. In the Southern Dynasties, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) affirmed the new writing styles initiated by Odes of Chu and expressed his admiration for its novel contents and new expressions, but he insisted that writings should be carefully considered based on and in reference to The Book of Songs. The concept of seeking novelty without deviating from the proper way emphasizes the need to stay true to universal laws, objective knowledge, broadly shared ideas, common emotions and good things in the world, and that all excellent experiences or good paradigms of literary creation should be preserved, so as to ensure that the development of thought and culture, the evolution of literature and art, and the writing of articles will not deviate from the proper way, and will continue to improve with the work of ancient sages and excellent classics as the foundation.
DETAILED>>Travelers heading down different paths do not plan together how to travel. Originally, the saying meant people with different views and beliefs do not seek to work together. Dao (道 way), which originally referred to “road,” is extended to include opinions, beliefs, interests, viewpoints, and guiding principles. Mou (谋 plan), is extended to mean cooperation and collaboration. In order to work together, it is most important to agree upon a set of common goals and principles. Without them, parties cannot collaborate successfully. On the other hand, collaboration should not sacrifice principles. Upholding principles does not mean rejecting cooperation. Rather, it means rejecting unprincipled deal-making. This is true of cooperation among individuals and among countries as well.
DETAILED>>Poems and lyrics arise from genuine feelings, which, however, should not be excessive but be controlled by ritual propriety and righteousness, so as to be tactfully persuasive. This term was first used when commenting on The Book of Songs and then developed into a guiding principle for literary creation in general. It not only acknowledges people's instinctive desires and the need to express and describe such desires, but also emphasizes that Confucian ethics should be employed to contain and guide feelings, which should neither be improperly vented nor transgress the boundaries of society, politics and ethics. Thus, feelings expressed via poetry are both individual and social.
DETAILED>>Any country without righteousness will decline and fall, no matter how powerful it is. The principle of righteousness is the foundation or moral core for the founding and survival of a country. Deviating from this principle of righteousness and resorting to force or military might to rule will ultimately lead to a country being evil and ruinous. Such a country will not gain support from its people, nor will it be endorsed by other countries that uphold justice. Its force or military might will become useless eventually, and it will not last for long. The meaning of the term is similar to the concepts of “the kingly way” and that “a state should regard righteousness as a benefit.” It is another concept that reflects the spirit of Chinese civilization.
DETAILED>>Public trust is the foundation underlying state power. A good ruler does not cheat the people. This does not mean that the state has no secrets from the public. Rather, it means the ruler should keep his promise, govern the state by law, maintain moral integrity, and have the trust of the people. He must not abuse his power, be deceitful and cheat the people. These acts can only cost him popular support. This notion resonates with the principle that “without people’s trust the state will not survive,” and it is an extension of the principle of putting the people first.
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All under heaven belongs to all the people in the world; a country belongs to all the people in the country. “All under heaven” can here be understood as the country or highest sovereign power of the country. The ancients regarded all under heaven as belonging neither to a single person nor to a single family but to all the people. Whoever acted according to morality and justice and was good to the people of all under heaven, such a person was qualified to possess and rule all under heaven. This implies a concept of human rights bestowed by heaven and governance by virtue. In a modern context, this can be understood in the following way: the world belongs to all the people of the world – every country and every person have the right to take part in government.
In the development of Confucianism in ancient China, the belief of Confucius (551-479 BC) to pass on the thinking of past sages without change led the trend to restore and revere the thinking of the ancients. Later generation scholars who studied Confucianism adopted this trend as a special approach to study. As described by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, this was “tracing the fundamental way of nature, following what sages said and the guidance of Confucian classics.” Liu advocated that all poetic and other literary works should be written in accordance with the Confucian classics and that such works should inherit the refined styles of the classics and give play their educational role. Confucius lived less than a hundred years, but his thinking has been passed on for more than a thousand years and is still influential today.
DETAILED>>Weapons are tools of death; war is wicked and against morality. The original meaning of bing (兵) is “weapon” and is extended to mean “army”; zheng (争) means “conflict” and “struggle” and here means “war”; nide (逆德) means inhuman, contrary to benevolence and compassion. The ancient Chinese, including military strategists, all considered the use of force and war fearsome, only to be employed as a last resort, and that even if military force was deployed, the principles of benevolence and righteousness should be adhered to. This is another expression of high respect Chinese have for benevolence and enlightenment in the spirit of upholding peace as embodied in the idea of wen.
This proposition is made in Huainanzi compiled under the sponsorship of Liu An (179?-122BC), King of Huainan, in the Western Han Dynasty. Earlier Chinese scholars had proposed that war should be seen in a wider context of state policy, not just as military actions. According to this thinking, war is a part of state policy, not independent of it, and it is state policy that eventually dictates the direction of war and whether it ends in victory or defeat. This is quite similar to Clausewitz’ statement in his work On War that “War is the continuation of policy by other means.”
DETAILED>>The strength of an army derives from popular support. Ancient Chinese philosophers did not measure the combat effectiveness of the armed forces purely from the perspective of the military, but stressed the integration of the military and people, as well as the integration of the military and government. This is in line with reality, because the people are the source of the military, and also provide other resources needed for war, such as manpower and material and financial support; there is an interrelation between the people’s strength and military strength, between popular sentiment and military mood, and between popular support and military morale, with the former being the basis of the latter. This is the concrete embodiment of people-oriented thinking. In On Protracted War, Mao Zedong drew upon this concept when he wrote, “The richest source of power for waging war lies in the people.”
DETAILED>>One should not instruct a student until he is anxious to learn; one should not give guidance to a student until he wants to express himself but does not know how. This term is an underlying principle of Confucius’ （551-479 BC） philosophy on education. It stresses the importance of keeping students motivated. The principle of
guidance of teaching in contemporary educational theory originates from this concept.
In writing poetry, poets should neither totally adhere to nor digress too much from the objects depicted. This term includes two aspects: the relationship between words, images and the objects depicted, and the relationship between the poem's theme and the objects depicted. It emphasizes that if the objects depicted resemble the subject too closely, the poem will sound insipid and mundane; but if the objects depicted are too detached from the subject, the poem will sound superficial and farfetched. In addition to the requirement of depicting objects, odes to objects should also convey implied meaning which cannot be forced. Otherwise, they will quite likely fall into a stereotype. Only when a proper balance is achieved between the depiction of objects and its implied sentiment can excellent odes to objects be produced.
DETAILED>>Poets should not concern themselves with theory, logic or any other convention in the use of language. Quan (筌), originally a bamboo fish-catching device, later was used as a metaphor for any form of linguistic constraint on poetic creation. The term “language trap” was first put forward by the Song Dynasty poetry theorist Yan Yu （？-1264）in his Canglang's Criticism on Poetry, a work on poetry learning and creation. It can be likened to the idea of “subtle insight.” Poetry writing has its distinct ways of thinking and aesthetic requirements. Essentially, it should express the poet's emotions and mood, and emphasize momentary feeling, rather than expound on theories or show off one's learning. Poetry learners should also avoid being shackled by theories or conventions in language use.
In Confucius’ （551-479 BC） time, how well one understood The Book of Songs was a sign of his social status and cultural attainment. If one did not study it, one would find it difficult to improve one’s ability to express oneself and to converse with people of high social status. Confucius’ elaboration on the relationship between studying The Book of Songs and social interaction actually expounds on the importance of literature in education.
DETAILED>>This happens when a literary work reveals to its reader the truth and beauty of its author’s innermost feelings, to the point that the reader becomes oblivious to the wording. Such an idea was first raised by the Tang Dynasty poet-monk Jiaoran (720-796?). It emphasizes three points. First, the core value of literature is to express one’s true feeling; the wording is only a tool. Second, both the author and reader should focus on the meaning while forgetting the words. Third, tacit understanding is crucial to art and literature. Only through dialogue between souls can a variety of illocutionary implications be activated. The whole term highlights the importance of imagery and artistic ambience in classical Chinese literature.
DETAILED>>This saying, with the attitude to fame and fortune at its core, refers to a way in which people in ancient China sought to practice self-cultivation. People should not be greedy for fame and fortune and be burdened by such greed. Instead they ought to cherish noble ideals and work heart and soul to achieve them.
DETAILED>>This concept is tantamount to saying that everyone is equal before morality and righteousness. The term fufan (负贩) refers to a small trader who carries a toting pole to do business, and generally refers to people at the bottom of society. Whether a person commands respect or not should not be based on status, but on intrinsic character, i.e., morality and righteousness. Those whose words and deeds are moral and righteous command respect. Otherwise, they do not. This concept vividly demonstrates the spirit of the Chinese people who advocate morality and righteousness.
DETAILED>>The Chinese phrase dedao (得道) or “obtaining Dao” here refers to having “a just cause.” Since ancient times Chinese people have had a high esteem for justice and have thought of justice as a decisive factor determining success or failure in war and other enterprises. Only by upholding justice can one achieve internal unity and popular support, which are essential for the success of a war or a cause； otherwise, popular support is lost and the ruler or leader becomes too isolated and helpless to succeed. This is a specific expression of the Chinese notion of “governance based on virtue” and the spirit of “civilization.”
DETAILED>>The term means that those who win the hearts of the people or get the service of the talented will rise while those who lose the hearts of the people or fail to get the talented people will perish. Ren (人) stands for people’s hearts as well as people’s talents. This saying, which comes from Records of the Historian, has two connotations. First, the rise and fall of a country or government depend on winning people’s hearts. Only by winning people’s hearts and responding to their wishes can a country or government continue to thrive.
A writer needs to refine his feelings and thoughts before he can produce good writing. Prose and poetry are not a crude combination of words and sentences; they are closely associated with the author’s sentiment. Here, sentiment can be understood as a person’s feelings and thoughts as well as his cognition of nature and life. Starting off from his own feelings and thoughts, the writer chooses appropriate wording and sentence patterns to voice his feelings and thoughts. By doing so, he aims to affect and inspire more readers. The greatest attraction of a literary work lies in the profound and unique emotional experience and rational cognition it conveys. Therefore, a writer lacking in emotion, thought and apprehension, even if he exerts his rhetorical skills to the utmost, will only produce superfluous and nonsensical things.
DETAILED>>This means one should acquire as much knowledge as possible from books to gain the experience of others. At the same time, one should also have as much direct contact with the world as possible to enrich one's personal experience and broaden one's horizon. When one applies theory in practice and draws on both direct and indirect experience, he will gain true knowledge.
DETAILED>>Every person wants to fulfill his wishes, some of which are justified, while others are not. Trying to meet all these desires can only violate order and morals and even lead to social conflict. This quotation from the chapter “The Record of Music” in The Book of Rites explains the functions of music using as an example “Dawu” (大武great martial dance), a musical performance on the expedition of King Wu of Zhou (?-1043 BC) against King Zhou of Shang (?-1046 BC). King Wu of Zhou won the victory. However, he had waged war not to achieve personal ambition but to overthrow a brutal despot in the interest of the people, to achieve benevolence and righteousness and restore peace and prosperity. Therefore, the performance of “Dawu” fostered public moral standard by encouraging people to be virtuous and reject undesirable behavior.
DETAILED>>This term indicates that a writer should give expression to his true feelings in literary creation and not be constrained by particular regulations or formulas. It was first used by Ming Dynasty writer Yuan Hongdao (1568-1610) as he commented on the literary work of his younger brother Yuan Zhongdao (1570-1626). Later, it became the core idea of the Gong’an School of Literary Writing, firmly opposed to the stubborn emulation of ancient literature as advocated by the Former Seven Masters and the Latter Seven Masters of the time, who highly esteemed prose of the Qin and Han dynasties and poetry of the golden Tang era. The Gong’an School emphasized that literature and art flow forth from the heart, value freedom and originality, and refuse to be bound by any convention. This school urged poets to defy any restriction imposed on them. This view was important to the assertion of individuality and rebellion against tradition, at a time when reverence for and emulation of ancient literature was the trend. It exerted a positive influence on literary creation in that era and later.
DETAILED>>When two people are of the same mind, their combined strength is like a sharp blade which can cut through metal. “Two people” here could mean two brothers, husband and wife, or any two persons working together. “Of the same mind” here means the people sharing the same vision and thinking. This metaphorical term means that people of the same mind will create great strength and can overcome any obstacles. It stresses the importance of concerted efforts and cooperation, which will generate great power.
In the context of this term, “laws” refers to the administrative edicts of a ruler as well as institutions and laws. “Times” refers primarily to the prevailing social conditions. “Rites” mainly refer to a society’s moral norms and codes of conduct. In addition to social conventions and mores, “customs” also include popular sentiment. This expression means since everything is constantly changing and evolving, institutions, laws and rites must change correspondingly. It opposes being bound by tradition, favors innovation and change, and espouses the basic principle that a country’s governance should follow the times and respond to popular will. This is an example of the concept of “going with the times” contained in The Book of Changes, and it also resonates with the concept of “putting the people first” advocated by Confucianism.
DETAILED>>This term first appeared in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties. It focuses on the relationship between feeling and style. Here, qing (情) means “sensibility” or “reason-based passion,” and refers to feelings, thought and content in a literary work. Cai (采) means “literary grace.” It refers to formal beauty or literary adornment, highlighting the formal aspects of a work. Excessive adornment and lack of true feeling and content inevitably make a work boring. The relationship between feeling and style is comparable to that between an animal fur and its stripes. It would be absurd to destroy a fur for the sake of preserving its stripes.
DETAILED>>This concept holds that too many flowers disfigure the branches of a tree (because this interferes with the overall beauty); and excessive body weight damages the bones (by reducing their ability to support the body). The term was coined in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons of Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) in the Southern Dynasties. Liu used this as a metaphor to illustrate the principle that elements such as image, sound and color serve to convey the sentiment of a piece of writing. If one overuses techniques and piles on the rhetoric to simulate the image, sound and color of things, or contrives too deliberately to create beauty, sound and color, it will harm the structure and content of the writing. In response to the literary style of the Qi and Liang dynasties, which emphasized rhetoric, rhythm, and form, Liu articulated the principles of integrating form and content and organizing rhetoric according to the needs of content expression, while pointing out that excessive pursuit of rhetoric and writing techniques not only gets in the way of theme and content, but also adds nothing to true formal beauty.
DETAILED>>Silencing the people and preventing them from expressing their opinions is more damaging than blocking the course of a river and causing a flood. Fang (防) means “a dike” to stop water flowing, and its extended meaning is to “block,” “prevent,” or “stop.” Obstructing the river flow will make the water rise and wash away the dikes, causing uncontrollable flooding. The ancients used this analogy to describe the serious harm that could occur if the public was not allowed to express its opinions. Taken from a positive angle, it means that the public will is powerful and irresistible, and that a ruler should allow its expression, or else expect popular resistance. The idea is in line with such notions as “people are the foundation of the state”, “the people’s will is the foundation of the state”, and “people can float the boat (of state) or sink it”.
DETAILED>>This means to attack when the enemy is unprepared and take action when the enemy least expects it. It is a key principle of warfare advocated by Sunzi, an ancient Chinese military strategist. The essence is to launch a surprise attack and inflict heavy losses on the troops, weapons and morale of the adversary, so as to gain the initiative and secure victory. This has remained an important principle of warfare even today.
DETAILED>>This is a basic requirement of officials in traditional Chinese political philosophy. Essentially it advocates the spirit of an official who does not abuse power to seek personal benefit, who works wholeheartedly for the public, who never shirks responsibility and is dedicated to service even if it requires self-sacrifice.
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Those who are warmongering will inevitably be destroyed, and those who forget war will inevitably land in danger. That is, countries that like to make war are certain to bring destruction upon themselves, and countries which are not prepared for war will find themselves in dangerous situations. Haozhan (好战) refers to those who are keen to stir up conflicts and wars externally for their own interests and in disregard of moral principles; wangzhan (忘战) is to forget that war may befall oneself and thus fail to be appropriately prepared for it. Ancient Chinese believed that domestic and international affairs should be handled with a spirit of loving others. Wars exhaust a country’s resources and lead to loss of life; even a just war, a “war to end wars” conducted to defend a country and safeguard its people, should be a last resort. This phrase both illustrates the dialectical relationship between war and the rise and fall of countries and demonstrates the “civil” nature of the Chinese people who love peace.
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Disaster for a state is the collapse of its political power base, not the disintegration of its upper ruling stratum. The foundation of state power is popular allegiance and control of grass-roots society. “Collapse like a landslide” is a metaphor for political authority losing popular support, all of society crumbling precipitously and the people being driven to desperation and revolt. “Roof-tiles coming loose” refers to disintegration and splits in the ruling group, some struggling for power and others breaking the law and even plotting rebellion. Collapse means shaking the social and economic foundations of state power and denying its legitimacy and right to exist. It is thus something much to be feared. Disintegration, on the other hand, can usually be overcome within the existing framework and is not to be feared as much. This kind of political wisdom attaches great importance to the will of the people and governing grass-roots society. It is similar to the idea of “people first.”
The poetic voice of Ji Kang ( 223-262, or 224-263) is marked by elevated clarity, while that of Ruan Ji (210-263) by unfathomable obscurity. These distinct styles are summarized by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) in his examination of the evolution of Chinese poetry in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. Infused with a blend of Daoist insight and Confucian resolution, Ji Kang’s poetry offers a genuine expression of his aspirations and experiences. His works pulsate with vigor and spontaneity, exuding an unwavering attitude, a fervent emotional depth, and a keen intellect that sliced through the most complex of ideas. Ruan Ji’s poems, in contrast, are marked by a reserved demeanor and complex language, a reflection of the tumultuous political climate in which he lived. Analogies, associations, and symbolism permeate his work, as does a penchant for using the past to satirize the present and for infusing emotions into inanimate objects. In this manner, Ruan Ji crafted a style that delves into the enigmatic and obscure, a profound approach that touches on the inexpressible aspects of melancholy, depression, bitterness, anxiety, sadness, and desolation. Ji Kang and Ruan Ji each forged their own way, defying the strictures of Confucianism to fully express their unique personalities. This liberated approach allowed them to access a profound understanding of life and history, one that was both expansive and unrestrained. Liu Xie’s acclaim of Ji Kang and Ruan Ji’s independent personalities and profound poetic prowess cemented their status as literary legends. Their works remain a source of inspiration for later scholars and word connoisseurs who have strived to emulate their esteemed oeuvre.
DETAILED>>Do not impose on others what you do not want yourself. That is the “way of being considerate” advocated by Confucius（551-479 BC）. It calls for using one’s own mind to infer and understand other people’s minds. In today’s words, it means to put oneself into others’ shoes or to think from their positions. Its philosophical basis lies in the similarity of people’s basic natures. It is an important principle put forth by Confucians to govern inter-personal relationships, and is now extended to international relationship management to counter power politics. Its essential elements are benevolence, equality, and tolerance.
DETAILED>>The pre-Qin Dynasty Confucian scholars contrasted reasoning with rhetoric and advocated that rhetoric should be based on reasoning. They argued that an article not based on reasoning would not be a good one. In the Southern Dynasties, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) continued to uphold this view, further arguing that persuasive reasoning constituted the substance of a piece of writing and that a graceful literary style enhanced its appeal. He believed that Confucian scholars produced reasoning-based writings with graceful literary style, thus turning these fine writings into classics.
DETAILED>>This term means that when writing, a writer should allow his mind to roam freely across the vast universe. It was first put forward by Western Jin scholar Lu Ji (261-303) in his work "The Art of Writing" when describing the thought process governing artistic creation. Lu Ji believes that in conceiving and creating a work of art, an artist should transcend both time and space, like a steed racing to all quarters of the universe or a soul soaring across the skies. When engaging in a creative activity, a writer should turn all his perceptual faculties inward, abandon any distracting thought and focus on the object of his aesthetic contemplation. Thus inspired, the writer will wander off as far as his mind allows, be unconstrained by the limits of time and space, and produce artistic images imbued with imagination. This concept established the basic framework of ancient Chinese art conception theory.
DETAILED>>This is what Confucius （551-479BC）said of the description of love between young men and women in the poem entitled “Guan Ju” in “Ballads of Zhounan,” The Book of Songs. Later Confucian scholars regarded this as a basic requirement for poems and other literary works to advocate impartiality, peace of mind, and harmony between emotion and reason, making it a criterion for evaluating literary works. Its connotation is in accord with zhongyong (the golden mean) of Confucianism. In the more recent history, the connotation of the term has been continuously renewed to keep pace with the times.
DETAILED>>This is a famous statement made by Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC)on how beauty is relative. Originally it meant there was no difference between a beauty and an ugly person, because they both came from and reflected Dao. The character 厉 (lai) meant 癞 (lai, covered in scabs) in ancient Chinese. Whether a person is beautiful or ugly is but a subjective perspective in the mind of the beholder. Besides, beauty can turn into ugliness, and vice versa. Zhuangzi, from the perspective of the origin of all things, stressed that beauty and ugliness are both in accord with Dao and are inherently the same. This idea has encouraged later literary critics to look at all things, including literary works, from the perspective that opposite things complement each other.
DETAILED>>This concept describes that objects frequently in motion are not affected by external factors, and can last a long time. It also means that movement sustains life and vigor. In modern days, it means that existing thought and ideas must be continuously reviewed and critiqued, and that there must be criticism and self-examination to avoid becoming conservative and inflexible. This is the way to ensure continuing change and progress. The philosophical implication is that motion is the foundation of the world and the source of vitality of all things.
DETAILED>>All undertakings have a beginning, but few people are able to see things through to the end. Mi (靡) means “nothing, none,” and chu (初) means “beginning.” Xian (鲜) means “few,” and ke (克)means “be able, can.” The saying comes from The Book of Songs, and was a criticism of the degenerate and immoral King Li of Zhou whose constantly changing decrees brought misery to his people. The story has both practical and philosophical implications. Starting off with a flourish is not difficult, whether in personal behavior, doing business, being an official or governing a country, it’s persevering to the end that is hardest. This is an admonition to us to not keep changing our minds, to avoid making bold early promises and then failing to live up to them. We must not give up in the middle, but should persevere so that things not only begin well but also end well.
DETAILED>>This quotation from the chapter “Extolment and Commendation” of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons conveys the idea that the people should be allowed to freely express their ideas and release their emotions, as all remarks, especially critical and remonstrative ones, may have positive roles to play. Every commoner has his or her own views and feelings on social issues, especially on how the government is run.These discordant views and highly personal feelings, whether laudatory or critical, should be considered by the leadership of the state as reflections of the ethos, sentiments, thoughts, and opinions of the public, and as reference points for the improvement of governance. There is a need for free expression of views and wishes and proper release of discontent by the people, whose voices must not, and certainly can never, be silenced. In this sense, the quotation reveals the spirit of realism in Chinese literature. It encourages writers to know and write about reality, to straightforwardly express feelings and points of view, and not to write for flattery, adulation, material benefits, or avoidance of harm.
DETAILED>>In the collective psyche of the populace, there exists no unwavering allegiance to an immutable leader. Instead, it is an enduring yearning for kind-hearted leadership that prevails. The allegiance of the people is not an unyielding fortress – it morphs, gravitating towards those leaders who prioritize their well-being. To effectively win the people’s support, a leader must place the tangible interests of the populace at the forefront of their concerns. Every policy formulated, and each measure adopted, must be unequivocally designed to represent, safeguard,and ultimately realize the interests of the people. For any leader, the legitimacy and efficacy of power are not self-evident virtues – they must be gradually established through an unwavering commitment to benefit the populace. More than a mere guideline, this principle is another iteration of the fundamental assertion that “the people’s will is foundation of the state.” It personifies the essence of the Chinese spirit–the“people-first” philosophy.
DETAILED>>It is better to be a broken but beautiful and precious jade vessel than a whole but lowly clay one. In other words, be willing to die for one’s ideals and for what is right, than live without integrity or principle. This is another way of expressing a willingness to lay down one’s life for a just cause. Respecting the meaning and dignity of life over preserving one’s own life, and upholding righteousness and justice no matter the cost has been a quality much admired through the ages. This spirit has sustained and supported the Chinese people through many centuries of hardship and suffering.
DETAILED>>The expression means that a person in poverty does not need to learn how to be frugal because he is naturally frugal, and a person with a humble background does not need to learn how to be respectful because he is naturally respectful. This Chinese proverb does not mean to discourage people from learning those two virtues universally held in high esteem. Rather, it is meant to shed light on an essential and philosophical principle that a person’s character, in the final analysis, is not born nor randomly formed, but is determined by one’s circumstances. In other words, “a person is the product of his environment.”
DETAILED>>This
expression from Hanfeizi highlights how
a minute hazard is capable of developing into a devastating disaster. Everything
evolves from small to large or grows from few to many. If achieving a good
result is expected, then all kinds of hidden risks and potential dangers must
be detected and prevented as early as possible, no matter how negligible they may
be. The saying illustrates by analogy the importance of early prevention.
Any major undertaking must start small from the basics. The expression comes from Laozi. Zuxia (足下) means the place where one is standing. Laozi used the metaphors of a giant tree, a high platform, a long journey to represent two different ideas. （1）Proper preventive measures must be taken before problems or troubles occur lest things become worse; （2）All undertakings must start from the very beginning, because success or failure often depends on a good start; an extension of this is that reaching distant ideals and aspirations depends on many practical steps along the way to attain the seemingly impossible goal.
DETAILED>>This concept is meant to remind people of the need to learn from past experience and make it a guide for the future. In ancient China great importance was attached to writing history and thus historiography experienced great progress. It was so designed as to review the successes and failures of previous dynasties and recount the good and evil in historical figures, especially sovereigns and officials, in order to provide a warning or a guide for the future.
DETAILED>>From taxes and trails to trade and tillage – this line encompasses a set of progressive reforms introduced by Duke Wen of Jin (697 or 671-628 BC) during the Spring and Autumn Period that continue to resonate through history. By curtailing tax burdens for trade, keeping trade routes free from bandits and robbers, and alleviating taxes and corvee for peasants, the duke sought to energize farming and trade sectors, fuel production, and encourage the trans-regional flow of people, goods, and wealth, thereby amplifying societal prosperity. The modern relevance of this policy underscores the enduring value of creating an economic system that is open, accessible, and promotes mutual benefit.
DETAILED>>This concept emphasizes that the writing techniques, the meaning of the objects and the sentiment of the work should be highly compatible and integrated. If there is only technique without a rich and beautiful meaning, it is not clever; if there is only meaning without suitable technique to express it, it is not rich and beautiful either. The first part of the phrase was first used by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties to praise the work of Qu Yuan (340?-278? BC). Now it is extended to refer to the artistic realm of high purity and fragrance in literary works. The term bilei yuyi (比类寓意) refers to the use of analogies, metaphors and symbolism to describe the appearance of unknown things by using the similarities and differences of familiar things to inspire the reader’s imagination.
DETAILED>>This quotation is from the chapter “Essay of Mourning and Essay of Memory”of the book The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), author during the Southern Dynasties, holds that if an author, with no real ache in heart, exaggerates and sensationalizes grief and sorrow in writing, it is impossible for the lament to touch the reader’s heart. Only when a lament is based on one’s own heartfelt sorrow or on real empathy forthe loss of others in the case he writes on behalf of someone can it convey emotional power. Writers should not abuse rhetoric and creative skills in blind pursuit of a moving effect. Nor should they deviate from the elegiac purpose and the funereal tone of laments to seek rhetorical showiness and formal beauty. With this quotation, Liu Xie further interprets the opposing ideas of “producing emotions for a piece of writing” and “producing a piece of writing for emotional effect.”
DETAILED>>Natural or societal phenomena trigger a subjective feeling, which in turn expresses itself in words. This term was first raised by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties in his critical work on literature and writing, The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It reveals the fact that subjective feeling varies with the changes in natural or societal phenomena. This relation between sentiments, natural or societal phenomena, and verbal expressions originates from the relation between speech, meaning, and phenomena in philosophical and linguistic inquiries, but it has its own peculiar implications. Where academic or practical writing is concerned, meaning takes shape in the mind first, and then it finds expression through words; even when it involves objects or scenery, words are employed to explain and support the existing meaning. In such a process, meaning will not change with external objects or scenery. However, literary creation is a process of expressing subjective feelings; therefore its wording sentimentally varies with external objects or scenery. Liu Xie’s observation both reveals the origin of literature and explains the features of literary conception; it made literature conscious of its own subjective status. The Six Dynasties’ writings reflect this new trend, as noted by Liu in his The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons.
People should be able to promote dao (the Way) rather than use dao to promote themselves. This is a well-known statement by the great ancient thinker Confucius (551-479BC). Dao refers to the righteous principles, i.e., the fundamental principles and universal rules (including morals and justice) that are observed by everything in the world including human beings. Human beings should take the responsibility to promote Dao, but not use dao as a means to gain personal visibility. The purpose of the statement is to establish the centrality of human beings. Human beings should not only respect dao, but also respect the agents that promote dao – human beings themselves.
DETAILED>>According to this term, a mountain is lofty and steadfast, conserving everything with its infinite forbearance. Thus, a virtuous man feels elated by associating this with poise, serenity and benevolence. Water, on the other hand, runs on incessantly, finding its way around without being deterred by any obstacle. Thus, a wise man feels joyful recalling how water meanders its course and keeps pace with the seasons. These two statements complement each other in meaning. Benevolent and wise people note their own nature and aptitude, even their own spiritual state of being, through mountains and water, hence their happiness at the sight of natural scenery. This represents two aspects of a noble-minded person’s self-cultivation. It is a personification of natural beauty and an experience of aesthetic appreciation brought about by comparing virtue to, and empathizing with, mountains and water. Thus, mountains and waters are often associated with beautiful feelings and have become a common aesthetic image. Wandering among mountains and streams is also seen as an important way for a man of letters to cultivate himself. This comparison made between virtue and natural scenery is typical in Chinese artistic expression and thought.
DETAILED>>To be successful in war, the commander must ensure the readiness of his army. While war is fought on the battlefield, there are often non-military factors that determine its outcome, whether victory or defeat. A top commander must consider how to overcome the enemy as a matter of strategy. Sound policies and popular support will ensure strong support for fighting; strict military discipline and swift execution of orders will boost combat capability. Thus, the troops will be unbeatable and prevail over the enemy.
DETAILED>>Although the thinkers of various schools were out of tune with their times, their aspirations were expressed in their writings and have been constantly developed with the heritage of their thoughts. This idea from the chapter “Thinkers of Various Schools” of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons means that in addition to the sages, thinkers of other schools also comprehended the fundamental laws of the universe and people’s lives. Although their foresight might not have been understood, accepted, or applied in practice by their contemporaries, people of later generations who comprehended, interpreted, and developed their thoughts would finally help to realize their aspirations. With this idea, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), the Southern Dynasties author of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, eulogizes the necessity of writing for conveying ideas and culture. He argues against the eager pursuit of material benefits, holding that one ought to endure being ideologically isolated from the times, refrain from “hastening to claim credit,” and be filled with a sacred sense of mission. The author interprets the idea that “indignation spurs one to write great works”by Sima Qian (145 or 135? -? BC), in a positive and optimistic manner, hence a major boost to the faith of literati and intellectuals in further dedication to the cause of writing.
DETAILED>>This statement suggests that the beauty of literature and art lies in the unity and harmony of diverse elements. It became an important principle in ancient Chinese theories on literature and art, and facilitated the development of literature and art.
DETAILED>>This expression highlights the connection between poetry and painting in their ability to create aesthetic imagery. This idea was first put forward by Su Shi（1037-1101）in his “Notes to Wang Wei’s Painting 'Mist and Rain over Lantian'.” Painting creates an aesthetic effect through images presented. Poetry, on the other hand, is a language art, which creates an aesthetic effect through the use of words. The former is an art that has shape but no sound, while the latter is an art that has sound but no shape. The term means that good poetry and painting should be fused so that a spontaneous and novel aesthetic realm can be created by a “picturesque poem” or a “poetic picture.” This idea of Su Shi’s had a far-reaching influence on the subsequent development of literature and painting in China.
DETAILED>>This alludes to the long time it takes for a tree to grow, yet even longer time it takes to nurture talents. The implications are twofold: first, identifying and bring up talents has long-term significance for the development of a country and a society; second, nurturing talents should be an undertaking pursued with strategic vision, sustained efforts and according to a comprehensive plan .
DETAILED>>Humans must first of all eat to live. Taste is secondary. Mozi (468?-376 BC) opposed extravagance in favor of frugality and utility. He argued that an extravagant way of life was wasteful of labor and raw materials. He prioritized eating one’s fill and dressing warmly over aesthetic demands. It was not that he abhorred beauty or was unable to appreciate it. Rather, he adopted functionality and usefulness as his criteria for judging beauty, and believed that whatever was impractical or of only formal elegance had no true beauty. Whereas Confucian philosophers valued both form and content, arguing that external features and inner substance were equally important, Mozi placed substance well above form, which also illustrates the relationship between aesthetics and practicality.
DETAILED>>Changes in trends or situations arise from the clashes and stimuli of factors and forces. This was an explanation of history proposed by the famous ancient Chinese historian Sima Qian (145 or 135?-? BC). “Events” were the basic trends or situations in the world; their “flow” was how they changed over time like flowing rivers. Sima Qian felt that while history was composed of the stories of people, it could not be changed by the will of any one person or persons. Rather, the outcome of the flow of events was basically determined by the clash or stimulus of various factors and forces involved in the process. This embodies ideas of the convergence and interaction of historical forces.
DETAILED>>This piece of advice on education was propounded in Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals. Everyone has his particular growth process. A teacher should reflect on his own experience, respond to students with deep empathy, and establish mutual understanding with them. It is not only a show of love in the education process, but also a sound foundation for effective education. This was a call for a new type of teacher-student relationship where the teacher was held in respect and the students loved. Such advice chimed with the Confucian concept of reciprocity, putting oneself in the position of others and having empathy.
DETAILED>>Relying on moral strength will bring prosperity, whereas relying on violence will bring doom. The saying is described in The Book of History (as cited in Records of the Historian). De (德) refers to morals, grace, and integrity. Li (力) refers to coercion, violence, and military power. Under the influence of the political and ethical principles of the Confucian school, since ancient times the Chinese people have been advocating benevolent governance virtue (winning over people with benevolence) as opposed to rule by force (wielding power over people), believing that only by relying on benevolence can the ruler hope to win people’s hearts and minds, resulting therefore in a positive synergy that brings about prosperity. Rule by force, on the other hand, can merely coerce people into submission, but cannot achieve genuine and lasting harmony and unity. This is true not only in managing an entity or governing a country, but also in handling relationships among countries. As a principle for managing international relations, the term suggests that wanton engagement in military action or attempting to completely dominate others are incompatible with the development of civilization. Only by observing moral principles and trusting one another can sustainable peace and security be achieved in the world.
What is justified and fair is bound to work; acting with determination is bound to succeed. This statement emphasizes that being on justified ground and acting decisively will enable one to ultimately achieve the goal, which is similar to the current view that people should both be self-motivated and respect objective laws.
This concept was proposed by Mencius (372?-289BC). By “being intelligent,”he meant that one is full of wisdom, which is mainly expressed as one’s ability to analyze, judge and reason; by “following the trend of the times,”he meant to follow the basic situation or trend of existence, change and development of things. The situation or trend of objective things is objective and primary; human wisdom is subjective and secondary. True wisdom is not a solidified thing in the human mind, but an evolving thing that exists in the interaction between subject and object. The subject of action must constantly and concretely reach the consistency of subjectivity and objectivity, size up the situation, make the best of the situation, acquire an understanding of laws,and develop a big-picture view, so as to make discoveries, creations, progress and achievements. This is the dialectic of the relationship between the subject and object.
DETAILED>>This expression, which is from The Book of Songs, was originally a subtle piece of advice to King Xuan of Zhou （？-782 BC） to recruit talented recluses to work for his country. Later, it became an allegory of using criticism from others to correct one’s own mistakes, and drawing on the experiences and practices of other people or other countries to improve oneself. This phrase expresses the open-mindedness of the Chinese people and their eagerness to benefit from others’ practices.
DETAILED>>The peach and plum trees themselves are silent, but their lovely flowers and sweet fruits attract many people, creating a path leading to them. The analogy here is that a person of integrity who does good deeds may say very little but will be liked, respected and trusted. The saying shows that Chinese have always valued uprightness and good deeds.
DETAILED>>Dafu (大赋), a particular style of long compositions of the Han Dynasty, portrays the landscape of the capital city and the countryside to extol the aesthetic appeal of its brightness, splendor and grandeur. Coined in The Rites of Zhou, the concept tiguo jingye (体国经野) is an intertextual structure, and it means to set apart the capital and the countryside, decide the locations of the palaces and the temples, and measure the boundaries of the land. The dafu works mostly describe the prosperity of the capital, the majesty of the palaces, the wonders of the gardens, and the glory of hunting events. Through the descriptions and narratives of magnificent scenes and objects, they celebrate the Han Dynasty’s style and prestige, good governance and strength. Therefore Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties used this concept in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons to summarize the outstanding features of dafu works, revealing the deep-seated reasons that brought them into being, and setting out their great significance.
DETAILED>>The view that ordinary people also share responsibility for the fate of the country originated with the famous late Ming- and early Qing-dynasty thinker Gu Yanwu（1613-1682）. He stated that the ruler and his officials were in charge of the state apparatus, but guarding all under heaven was the responsibility of every individual, no matter how lowly they may be. In pre-modern China, all under heaven referred to the whole territory of China ruled either directly or nominally by the Son of Heaven. By “state” Gu Yanwu, however, meant something entirely different: the state only refers to one imperial house, while “all under heaven” refers to the whole of the Chinese nation and Chinese civilization. The modern Chinese thinker Liang Qichao （1873-1929）built on this idea and put it in more general terms stating that “survival of a nation is the responsibility of every individual,” turning it into a clearer and more forceful statement. It was subsequently quoted by so many statesmen and thinkers that it became a household phrase. Ever since, this saying has had tremendous influence in arousing the patriotic spirit among the people of China and making them assume responsibility for the fate of their country.
DETAILED>>According to this precept, in pursuing artistic creation, one needs to draw inspiration from all things in nature and his innermost thoughts. Zaohua (造化) means nature. Xinyuan (心源) is a Buddhist term, meaning that the true awakening of one’s mind is the root of all Buddhist teaching. This view, originally described by the Tang Dynasty painter Zhang Zao, was quoted later by the Tang Dynasty author Zhang Yanyuan in his Famous Paintings Through History. It originally was a principle governing the painting of landscapes. It aimed to achieve both verisimilitude and ephemeralness and convey the subtle nuances of mountains, rivers, lakes, trees, and rocks in real life by carefully observing their true grains, shapes, and colors. The painter was encouraged to experience their beauty with his heart and capture it in a painting. “Nature” and “inspiration from within” are complementary rather than confrontational – they have a relationship of unity rather than opposition. Tang Dynasty essays about poetry, too, referred to the “soul” and “inspiration from within.” Descriptions of poetry writing were not very different from Zhang Zao’s interpretation of the process of painting. Classical Chinese prose and poetry are similar to painting in that they stress the importance of molding different physical images into an aesthetic whole. They value the charm of a literary work, fusing outer nature and inner thought.
Coined in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, this concept means to euphemistically and subtly express the authors’ thoughts using objects to demonstrate their sorrowful and despondent mood. This is the general mood and artistic characteristics of the “Nineteen Old Poems,” and illustrates poetry’s aesthetic characteristics of depicting objects in order to express feelings in a soul-stirring way.
DETAILED>>Pursue knowledge by adding more each day. Pursue dao by subtracting some (bias and desires) each day. "Pursuing knowledge" refers to the accumulation of knowledge and wisdom, hence it uses addition to broaden and enrich. "Pursuing dao" refers to the understanding of universal principles; hence it uses subtraction to eliminate all bias and individualistic desires to get rid of unhealthy knowledge and undesirable wishes, which in turn achieves "non-action." Pursuing dao through subtraction is also a basic principle of governance advocated by Laozi. That is, established policies must be simple and easily implemented, and interfere as little as possible with the natural lives of people. This exemplifies the Daoist concept of "non-action."
DETAILED>>This term comes from the traditional Chinese theory of literary creation. It first appeared in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties. Rebutting the way some men of letters had since Wei and Jin times taken to faking emotions or arguments just for the sake of writing, and relying on all kinds of flowery language to disguise the emptiness of content, Liu discussed in brief the relation between form and content. Assuming the idea of mingling graceful wording with substance propounded in The Analects, he advocated giving equal value to content and form. His belief was that a balance should be struck between these two, and meaning should not be sacrificed in the pursuit of beauty in form. This concept had great impact on the literary creation theory of the Tang and Song dynasties.
DETAILED>>Sages can fully examine the laws of the universe and observe and study the subtleties of things. All-embracing and adaptable to different conditions of things, their thoughts perfectly agree with objective facts. For example, The Spring and Autumn Annals is succinct, where a single character can convey the writer’s praise or criticism. Yet the poem “The Seventh Month” in “The Bin Ballads” of The Book of Songs and the chapter “Conduct of the Scholar” of The Book of Rites do not hesitate to reiterate the authors’ respective ideas and express their feelings with manifold words. Therefore, to learn writing from the sages means to compose admirable articles that not only conform in manners to the rules of writing and correspond in content to objective facts but also adapt flexibly to different situations as required.
DETAILED>>This term means that two kings Wen and Wu (?-1043BC) of Zhou applied the idea of taut and slack bowstrings in archery to governing: a mixture of strictness and leniency. Wenwu (文武) refers to King Wen and King Wu of Zhou; dao (道) means the way of governing; zhang (张) taut bowstring, or strictness; and chi (弛) slack bowstring, or leniency. The Confucian school of thought, as represented by Confucius (551-479BC), advocated that governance should be based foremost on morality, propriety and education, with the use of force and punishment in second place only. The pen and the sword, leniency and strictness should complement each other. The expression is a crystallization of the wisdom of the ancient sage kings. In the modern sense, people should apply this attitude to organizing their life: a balance of work and play.
DETAILED>>Readers of poetry create images and scenes in their minds based on what they are reading. These are the readers’ imaginations based on what is depicted in the poems. The term comes from Daoist theories about the relationships between discourses, ideas or meanings, and images that symbolize profound meaning in The Book of Changes. From the Wei, Jin to the Tang Dynasty, poetry critics sought “the image beyond an image, the scene beyond a scene” in order to pursue the spiritual implications and the beauty of images that are beyond textual descriptions. This term gives expression to the artistic and aesthetic tastes and ideals of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>To address the extravagance in social mores and in the style of writing of his time, Laozi advocated simple and natural lifestyles and literary presentations. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, men of letters valued natural and simple literary styles and were opposed to extravagant and superficial styles. This line of thought led to the emergence of great poets like Tao Yuanming（365 or 372 or 376-427）, and shaped literary writings to reflect direct thoughts and natural expressions. Subsequently, ancient Chinese literature and art took simplicity and naturalness as the highest aesthetic standards.
DETAILED>>Contained in the Guliang's Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, this concept embodies the ancient Chinese tradition of history compilation and historiography, and is an important historical methodology. This concept means that the research and writing of history should be based on historical documents. One needs to take an objective and prudent attitude towards different accounts in historical documents and given by different historians. One should respect historical data and refrain from making arbitrary judgments. Judgments should not be made until verification can be made; where verification cannot be made, disagreements should be allowed. This methodology is a concrete manifestation of the Chinese concept of "factual history" and expresses a well-balanced attitude of historiography.
DETAILED>>A person can become a sage by learning from other people. That is the way to find the path that leads up to the level of a sage, according to Zhang Xuecheng (1738-1801), a historian and thinker in the Qing Dynasty. A“sage”is honored by the ancients as having a character that is virtuous to the highest degree. Due to his understanding of the natural law and human nature, a sage is able to design and regulate rules to keep people’s moral life in order. His words and deeds set an ultimate example for morality in a society. However, a sage does not exist in isolation from ordinary people. Instead, he learns from them and draws the best from them, thus enabling himself to rise above them and guide them in the end. A“sage”and“ordinary people”are fundamentally two sides that are opposite yet connected, whose interactions pave the way for pursuing the goal of becoming a sage. Therefore, even though people around him may not offer a lot for him to learn, they are nevertheless a learning resource for a sage.
DETAILED>>If a piece of writing contradicts its author’s aspirations, why bother to write it at all? Here, yan (言) stands for either “speech” or “writing,” and zhi (志) refers to an author’s feelings and aspirations. The term originates from The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties. In Liu’s view, a writer should write to express his feelings and aspirations in the same way the authors of The Book of Songs did, bursting into songs and verses to voice their aspirations, sorrows and joys. Only such writings can be truly good. If what they put down on paper does not accord with what they think or feel, or if they themselves are soulless and can only show an affected sentimentality, their writings will naturally prove meaningless. This term criticises writers who are pompous and flashy to the neglect of true feelings
DETAILED>>Whether their opinions are correct or not, people who speak their minds should not be penalized and their messages should not be lost on their listeners. The term implies freedom of speech and a tolerant attitude towards criticism. To ensure proper governance and operation of a country, an organization, or a company, those in power and in management should have a good understanding of the situation on the ground as well as people’s needs and wishes, so as to mobilize all the segments of the society to play their roles. The way to achieve such result is to create healthy and harmonious relationships among people and let them speak their minds without fear so those in power can benefit from their various opinions and valuable insights. Even when the criticism from the general public or one’s subordinates is not fully justified, those in leading positions should take warning rather than condemning the critics.
DETAILED>>Lackluster writing or speech never travels far. What Confucius (551-479 BC) meant when he said this is that, in foreign relations, a diplomat should be eloquent and persuasive to achieve goals and become meritorious. Likewise, if an idea is to spread far or be remembered for long, it must be put to paper by rules of writing and with beautiful wording. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520 or 532？) of the Southern Dynasties cited these words of Confucius to uphold the importance of diction and to stress the importance of an essay’s layout and technique. This term highlights the instrumental role of writing in explaining and being useful to the world, thus raising the status of literary criticism in the history of thought and culture.
DETAILED>>The purpose of raising and training an army for a long time is to use it for warfare at a critical time. The significance of this concept has two aspects: one is that for the country, building of the military is a long-term and continuous effort, which should not slacken because it is costly and armed battles are rare; the other is with regard to the officers and soldiers, who should be ready to come forward at critical moments and take up their duties faithfully and bravely. The extended meaning goes beyond the military and refers to long-term preparation or the accumulation of strength in normal times for use at critical moments or whenever necessary.
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When there are armed conflicts, military action is only supplementary to good rule, which is the basis for unity and governance. Wu (武) means armed force or military means, and wen (文) means benevolent rule and edification. This notion was first proposed by the military strategist Yuliaozi of the Warring States Period. He said that how well plants grow depends more on the quality of the seeds than on the skill and care by the farmer. He used this analogy to illustrate the relationship between using military force and benevolent rule to unify and govern the state. To ensure long term peaceful governance over an obeying population depends on benevolent and enlightened rule, with military means only as a supplement. This is one of the earliest descriptions of the relationship between politics and military: the army is always subordinate to the politics, and serves the politics.
A ruler must generate wealth in accordance with justice and rules, and then use such wealth to help people prosper. Yi (义), originally refers to righteousness and can also be understood as appropriateness and rules. Shengli (生利) means to generate wealth and make profits. Fengmin (丰民) suggests enriching the people. This is to say that the ruler must ensure that what he does conforms to justice and rules, benefits the people, and improves their livelihood. It is a combination of the concepts of “justice bringing wealth” and “keeping wealth with the people.”
This happens when inner thoughts or a written text’s general idea cannot fully reflect the actual state of things, and when diction cannot fully express inner thoughts. It is a description and analysis of the psychology of writing by Lu Ji (261-303), of the Western Jin Dynasties, in his literary theoretic work, “The Art of Writing.” Specifically, inner thoughts or creative ideas triggered by external things can be diverse yet ambiguous and the author grasps only some of these. Language, too, has difficulty in expressing them fully, not to mention all the implications triggered by or related to external things. In the domain of everyday human cognition and practice, language can, by and large, clearly record the subject’s thoughts and express his wishes with regard to external things. But in literary creation, words often fail to do so. This also explains why literary interpretation enjoys greater latitude than purely academic interpretation. Lu Ji revealed this essential characteristic of literary creation and reception, thus promoting the development of literature under its own standards.
DETAILED>>The proverb, which is similar in meaning with the concept “prolonged suffering from an illness will turn a person into a
doctor,” comes from The History of the Han
Dynasty. It later
changed into sayings like “taking no medicine is better than seeing a mediocre doctor,”
which means essentially it is better not to see a doctor than to be mistreated by a mediocre doctor. Incompetent treatment
will make a patient sicker rather than better. On the other hand, certain
illnesses can recover automatically over time without treatment. This saying
speaks to the rejection of people of mediocre doctors and longing for competent ones. At
the same time, it also implies the notion that some diseases can cure themselves over time without treatment.
This term refers to the dual character of aesthetic appreciation of classic Chinese poetry highlighted by the early modern scholar Wang Guowei (1877-1927), from the perspective of the relationship between the self and the external world. In his renowned literary theoretic work Poetic Remarks in the Human World, Wang put forward the notion of "the scene jingjie （visionary world），arguing that only poetry written to invoke such a state can be deemed excellent work. He regarded this notion not only as a creative principle of poetry but also a criterion for poetry criticism. Besides, he used it to recount the evolution of poetry and to evaluate the taste or merit of a poem and its author. He also raised many propositions concerning the visionary world. Of these, the most important is the binary term "scene involving the self / scene not involving the self." "Scene involving the self" means that the author incorporates personal feelings into the literary image he creates, thus imbuing it with a tremendous emotional force. “Scene not involving the self,” on the other hand, does not mean a lack of emotion; rather, the author tempers this emotional force by exercising restraint and achieving a perfect harmony between personal feelings with literary imagery. To him, "without the self in it" is a perfectly natural state of creation, without any need for fabrication or alteration; therefore, it represents the highest level of artistic excellence. Overall, this term marks the starting point of Wang's literary criticism and the final destination of his literary thought.
DETAILED>>To overcome the enemy, unity in one’s camp is of primary importance. This is a proposition made in Basics of Military Strategies and Tactics written by Xu Dong (976?-1017?) in the Northern Song Dynasty. Unity means the support of the people. The ancient Chinese believed that “favorable weather conditions, geographic advantages, and the unity of the people” were the three factors determining victory and success, and that unity was the most important factor. Military conflict is a contest between two forces, particularly a contest of human strength, thus the importance of unity within the military ranks and the support of the whole population will make one strong and ensure victory. This is similar to the saying that “triumph comes when leaders and follows share the same goal.”It also stresses the importance of a basic Chinese value, namely, putting the human factor first.
DETAILED>>To have a strong army, the nation must have a prosperous population. In other words, a prosperous people are the basis and pre-condition of a strong military. Prosperity means the state treasury is full so military supplies are guaranteed. If people live a good life, they will have large families and the supply of manpower for the army is guaranteed. If society is well off, the population is content and will support national military policies and decisions. The expression shows the concretion between the population and the military in line with the concept that “people are the foundation of a state.”
DETAILED>>When the moon has a halo, a wind will arise; and when a column base turns wet, rain will come. Yun (晕) is a light circle around the sun or the moon, and chu (础) is a stone that serves as the foundation for a column in a building. This ancient proverb sheds light on the inevitable relationship between the “lunar halo”and “wind” and between the “wet column base” and “rain.” They speak to the wisdom of the ancient Chinese who learned to forecast weather through daily observations and repeated experiences. This proverb also contains the insightful realization that there exist necessary connections between certain things or phenomena. One thing or phenomenon signals the occurrence of another thing or phenomenon. Therefore, one can infer a certain thing or phenomenon from a given sign. Once people learn the internal rules governing changes, they can predict them based on their observation of the signs. As the Chinese sayings go, one is able to “tell the arrival of autumn by a falling leaf,” and “know the whole by its parts.”
DETAILED>>This is an aphorism from Yue Fei (1103-1142), a prominent general of the Song Dynasty. In his theory of warfare, a central concept is the subjective role the front line commander plays in the flexible deployment of tactics. While the general principles and laws of war always apply, it is also necessary to respect the individual initiative of the commander on the battlefield. His abilities to adapt to the situation on the ground, take appropriate decisions, deal with changing situations and employ flexible tactics are all primary guarantees of maintaining the initiative in a conflict.
DETAILED>>A thorough knowledge of both oneself and the enemy will avoid peril even in a hundred battles. This principle of warfare was proposed by the ancient military thinker Sun Wu. He advised that the commanding officer must first investigate and scout out the adversary thoroughly so as to know the strengths and weaknesses of both sides. This will give him foresight in battle and prevent reckless actions. Such knowledge is key to correct leadership, maintaining the initiative, and overcoming the adversary. This general principle applies to all other kinds of conflicts, too.
DETAILED>>These are the techniques used in writing five-character poetry. The establishment of relations among things means that when depicting scenery and human figures, the poet should convey their outward features faithfully, making them look as if emerging right before readers’ eyes. Besides, the poet should demonstrate the implications of things clearly and accurately. The establishment of relations among things and the creation of imagery are inseparable from full exploration of the nuances of feelings and apt depiction of scenery and things. On the one hand, the poet should write with all his passion and devotion, embodying his feelings in external objects. Only true feelings can produce profoundly moving poetry. On the other hand, the poet should pursue underlying implications to the utmost, exploring the spiritual as well as the physical state of human figures, objects and scenery. In doing so, he is able to infuse a poetic charm and vigor into his work, free from a superficial resemblance to the things depicted. Linking the creation of relations and imagery with a description of objects and feelings makes poetry more tangible and vivid. In his work The Critique of Poetry, Southern Dynastiespoetry critic Zhong Rong (?-518 ?) believes that five-character poetry, compared to the four-character poetry represented by The Book of Songs, is adept at utilizing this technique. He gave full affirmation to the five-character poetry popular in the Southern Dynasties, which promoted its development.
An unchanging principle underpinning the governance of a country is that it should deliver benefits to the people. Here, “the governance of a country” refers to establishing systems of governance and policies, and issuing decrees; “delivering benefits to the people” means safeguarding the interests of the people and doing what is best for them. This is another expression of the traditional Chinese notion of “putting the people first.” Today, it is behind the thinking of putting the people above everything else and satisfying their desire for a better life.
DETAILED>>The aim of war is to stop violence and eliminate evil. The people in ancient China regarded war as a violent action contrary to human nature, to be taken only as a last resort. If war was inevitable, it should be fought to uphold justice. This view of war still holds true today.
DETAILED>>The term means that a military general who is leading his soldiers fighting enemy in a faraway place has the right not to heed the orders from the king. That saying is historically acknowledged as a basic principle for balancing powers between the king and the military commander, and between an order from the king and one from a general. The reasons are threefold. First, warfare requires unique skills, and the king may not have the expertise. Second, the king who is not on the frontline may not know the situation of the battle. Third, the spatial distance between the king and the general makes it impossible for a timely communication of information. In addition, the situation on the battlefield is constantly changing. Any hesitation or delay in decision-making might risk losing an opportunity for victory. The point of this principle is to give frontline commanders sufficient discretion for the sake of winning victory for the benefit of the country.
DETAILED>>This is the counsel of Sun Wu, a renowned ancient military thinker. The goal of war is first and foremost to protect oneself and to defeat the enemy, and conversely only by defeating the enemy can one fully protect oneself. Another way of seeing this is to recognize that effective self-protection is the precondition for defeating the enemy. That is why the commander must plan carefully, prepare for both attack and defense, and not give the enemy any chance to fulfill its military objectives.
DETAILED>>A person who is skilled at warfare controls his opponents and is not controlled by them. The key point here is an emphasis on controlling the initiative in a battle. On the battlefield, a prerequisite for victory is the troop commander’s ability to determine the course of battle and steer it in the desired direction. Initiative in a battle is based on various objective conditions and subjective commands, and it constantly changes along with the changing balance of the opposing forces and the correctness of command concepts. During a battle, both sides try to take the initiative by controlling the time and place of engagement and the balance of forces. The main way to gain the initiative is to use flexible strategies and tactics to disrupt a situation which favors the opponent, to create weaknesses in him, to break his fighting spirit, and to thwart his plans. The concept of controlling the initiative is not only a manifestation of great military wisdom; it also offers insights for other areas of work and even for everyday behavior.
DETAILED>>One explanation for the kingly way (圣王之迹) contained here is that it refers to the meritorious deeds performed by the monarchs of the Western Zhou Dynasty, when they sent their men among ordinary people to collect folk poetry and learn about local customs. Here, shi (诗) refers to The Book of Songs, or simply the verses created by the common people, as described in Mencius. The term sheds light on how literature relates to society as a whole. Mencius (372?- 289 BC) was an ardent proponent of the kingly way, by which he expressed his longing for a saintly society with its corresponding system of rites and music. As such an ideal waned, the era of thriving rites and music drew to a close. With a fundamental change in social institutions and political climate, The Book of Songs lost the appeal it had once enjoyed, and the chanting of poetry also went out of fashion. Works of poetry similar to The Book of Songs could emerge no more. In its place, The Spring and Autumn Annals, a historical work known for its use of subtle and guarded language in criticism, appeared. This suited the needs of the new social conditions characterized by chaos and disorder, and explains the marked difference between The Book of Songs and The Spring and Autumn Annals in both style and content. This view, held by Mencius, became the source of poetry-related-to-history criticism.
Although brothers may quarrel at home, they always stick together to resist bullying by outsiders. This refers to people who have internal conflicts and disputes can still put together to resist aggression. It gives full expression to the desire of the Chinese people to stick together in time of crisis. In modern times, this expression has been used to symbolize the unity of Chinese nation when facing a survival crisis caused by foreign aggression.
Acknowledging the imperfections in those we cherish, and recognizing the merits in those we despise – this profound principle, taken from The Book of Rites, provides a timeless method for evaluating character. It resists sweeping acceptance or rejection of individuals based solely on personal preferences. Instead, it advocates for a measured analysis that invites objective evaluation, promoting the discernment of right from wrong while fostering a spirit of broad-minded tolerance. At its very heart, it maintains that moral integrity should be the compass guiding judgment, ensuring that personal inclinations do not outweigh moral principles. This wisdom rings particularly true for those who lead others.
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Laws should be respected by the sovereign ruler and people equally. This means that once a law is promulgated, everyone, regardless of status or wealth, has to abide by it; even the supreme ruler of the state cannot make changes at will. This notion can be seen as an extension of the ancient Legalist idea that “the law does not favor the rich and powerful.” It emphasizes not just the inflexibility and equality of the law; the law supersedes power and politics.
This saying by Confucius (551-479 BC) is recorded in The Analects. By this Confucius originally meant that talented and virtuous people in the upper class were “tools” for realizing the ideals of benevolence. Working for them and becoming friends with these people was an opportunity to realize the ideals of benevolence in the interest of the country and society. Later, this concept came to be used as a metaphor meaning that to do something well, one needs to make preparations and have good methods. The implied reasoning of this saying is as follows: objectives determine the choice of methods, and methods determine the realization of objectives.
DETAILED>>When things reach their extreme, change occurs, after the change they evolve smoothly, and thus they continue for a long time. This notion comes from The Book of Changes and is a way of understanding the principles of change. According to this text, things are constantly changing and will, when they reach their extreme, develop in the opposite direction. People ought to understand the way of change, look for the turning point when things reach their extreme, and facilitate change so as to effect their smooth and long-lasting development.
This term stresses the need for both well-thought organization of content and its eloquent presentation in writing history. The character沈 (here pronounced chen) means “profound” or “in-depth.” The term first appeared in the preface to Selections of Refined Literature compiled by Xiao Tong (501-531), Crown Prince Zhaoming of Liang during the Southern Dynasties. It means that sub-genres in historical biographies and chronicles, such as commendations, commentaries, introductory remarks and reviews, can, through in-depth organization of content and eloquent writing, better present historical figures and events and reveal things that shaped them. Unlike literary works, historical biographies are non-fictional and make either positive or negative comments on people and events. However, commendations, commentaries, introductory remarks and reviews, as important parts of historical biographies, also have literary value, thus creating a distinctive style. Scholars of later generations used this term to refer to particular types of content and features in literary works.
DETAILED>>To rule a state, use the methods for governing a state. To rule a country, use the methods for governing a country. Guanzi （？-645 BC） held that a ruler must not use the methods for governing a clan to rule a town, nor use the methods for governing a town to rule a state, nor use the methods for governing a state to rule a country. One must change one’s methods of governance according to differences in the area under one’s rule. One must broaden one’s vision and mind as the area under one’s rule expands. In modern language, the “state” could be interpreted as a country, and the “country” as the world.
Law is enacted to stop violence and evil and to encourage good behavior. This means law enforcement and moral education should go hand in hand.The purpose of the law is to punish evil and exalt goodness, which is morally significant. Execution of the law has an exemplary and guiding role, which means it has educational value. This view of law holds universal significance.
“Richness dwells in vintage simplicity and nuanced profundity in serene composure.” This is how Northern Song writer Su Shi (1037-1101) praised the poetic style of Wei Yingwu (737?-791) and Liu Zongyuan (773-819). Such insistence on the supremacy of simplicity and composure reflects Su Shi's view about poetry and is an important aesthetic conception of ancient China. “Great music is soundless, and great image is hard to trace,” Laozi wrote in his Dao De Jing. This shows Laozi's high esteem for simple and natural beauty, which is the source of Su Shi's aesthetic view.
DETAILED>>An author should produce a piece of writing to express emotions and not produce emotions for a piece of writing. In the chapter “Emotions and Rhetoric,”Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), the Southern Dynasties author of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, points out two contrasting attitudes towards literary creation. Some writers, who inherit the realistic tradition of The Book of Songs, “draw inspiration from grief and joy in real life and express feelings based on real events.” Their writings faithfully reflect reality and accurately depict what is on their mind. Others, who intend to fish for fame and compliments, produce emotions out of nothing to cater to popular aesthetic criteria. Liu strongly advocates the former attitude and argues against the latter. It is because writings based on real emotions, which include both personal and empathetic feelings, are key to the organic development of literature, while emotions produced for writing, hollow and subject to material benefits, reduce the realistic significance and aesthetic value of literary works. For writers, real experiences in life and perception of the true nature and feelings of humanity can help correct the defect of “manufactured emotions” and achieve an almost natural effect of art in writings, even if they are elaborately designed.
DETAILED>>The classical style of Chinese writing known as guwen (classical prose) which was promoted by Han Yu (768-824) revived the literary style in decline during the previous eight dynasties (Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Song, Qi, Liang, Chen, and Sui); and Confucianism he promoted lifted the people out of mental plight caused by their blind faith in Buddhism and Daoism. This is the conclusion made by Su Shi (1037-1101) of the Han Yu-led movement to return to classical prose as well as his affirmation of literary principles such as “writing aims to express ideas and reflect real life,” and “writing is the vehicle of ideas.” While speaking highly of Han Yu’s emphasis on Confucianism, Su Shi also stressed literature’s importance in governance of the country and society. It is a rebuttal of the formal and excessively rhetorical literary style that had prevailed since the Wei and Jin dynasties, which focused on rhetoric, couplets, rhyme, and allusion and was devoid of ideas. Han Yu sought to both reform the literary style and revive Confucianism; he also advocated the creation of literary works that were rich in content and free in form. According to Su Shi, Han Yu corrected the formalistic literary style of the eight dynasties but did not totally deny the beauty of style. He tried to lift people out of mental plight with Confucianism but did not completely reject Buddhism and Daoism. Su Shi sought to strike a balance between the style and content of writing, believing that form should be conducive to the expression of ideas, and that content should deliver a positive message and delight readers.
DETAILED>>This concept was first raised by Yan Hui（521-481 BC）, one of Confucius' (551-479 BC) disciples. He provided a subjective source for benevolence. According to the Confucian School, a man of benevolence is sure to cherish himself and then extend his love to others. In return, he is sure to win love from others. This is reciprocal. Many people advocated this concept since then, though they might not necessarily belong to the Confucian School. The essential idea is that one should not be selfish but should have self-respect and be self-reliant, doing his best to serve the people and the country.
DETAILED>>A poet will be able to produce a quality poem only when he is in a difficult and perilous environment, feeling suffocated with pent-up anger and frustration. The word qiong (穷 difficulty) does not mean the physical deprivation of material means but refers more broadly to adverse situations in life. Gong (工 quality) means artistically refined and beautiful. This idea was put forward by Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), a renowned leader in the literary world of the Northern Song Dynasty. He believes that adverse situations will enable poets to transcend the desire for worldly gains and assist them to depict with sophistication and insight scenes and people in the real world that have a universal significance. Ouyang Xiu’s theory not only continues but also develops Sima Qian’s (145 or 135?-? BC) “indignation spurs one to write great works” and Han Yu’s (768-824) “cry out against injustice.”
This concept no longer focuses on expressing the poet’s own indignation or frustration but seeks instead to shed light on the way a great poem comes into being. Later on, the proposition became a mainstream theory in literary criticism regarding the origins of literary masterpieces.
The term zongjiao was first seen in Buddhist classics, where jiao（教）referred to what the Buddha himself had taught, whether in his direct teachings or his wider endeavours to enlighten; zong (宗) on the other hand referred to what the Buddha's disciples had said and was a subdivision of jiao, containing subjective, personal beliefs. When the two are combined the term has two meanings: 1) encompassing the purposes and doctrines of Buddhism overall, and 2) referring to the beliefs of a particular branch or sect that share the same doctrines. Later on, Daoism also began to use the term, and in the modern era, zongjiao has been used to translate into Chinese the word "religion," where people come together through worship to commune with a supernatural, transcendent, and absolute supreme being, to enter a realm of glory, and attain eternal happiness.
DETAILED>>Clerical script is a variety of Chinese calligraphy during its evolution, also known as the “official script” or “ancient style of calligraphy.” It evolved from and was a simplification of seal script. In terms of execution of strokes, clerical script changed rounded turns to abrupt turns. Structurally, each character was wider and flatter, with longer horizontal lines and shorter vertical ones, featuring an elegant style like “a silkworm’s head and the tail of a wild goose,” and “one wave and three bends.” Clerical script is said to have been invented by a junior clerk named Cheng Miao who lived in the Qin Dynasty but actually it originated during the earlier Warring States Period. Cheng Miao was responsible only for putting into order and standardizing this calligraphic style. Compared with the seal script, clerical script was simpler in structure and more convenient to write. It became popular in the Eastern Han Period, reaching an unprecedented height of development. In the Wei and Jin period, the clerical script was also referred to as regular script, or proper script, which is similar to clerical style, but with left-falling and right-falling strokes.
DETAILED>>This refers to the process in which an artist creates his unique artistic representations of concrete objects, found in the natural world and social life, by mimicking, refining, and synthesizing their perceptual images. This concept for artistic creation comes from The Book of Changes, which uses images of hexagrams to symbolize everything in nature and their rules of change. The Book of Changes has inspired literature and art to make use of concrete artistic images to interpret and describe nature and human beings themselves. This mode of thinking has exerted a far-reaching influence on literary and artistic theories in ancient China, nurturing the birth of the theory of imagery.
DETAILED>>Feeling depressed and enraged, which here refers to a sense of helplessness found in poems, is one of the 24 poetic styles summarized by Sikong Tu（837-908）, a poet in the late Tang Dynasty. Faced with frustrations and tough challenges in life, or overwhelmed by the immensity of nature or major events, poets were often seized by dejection, grief, sadness, and anger, which gave rise to a “depressed and enraged” style in poetry writing. While the style bears similarity with the genre of tragedy in Western literary tradition, it is more influenced by Daoism, often featuring a sense of resignation or stoic optimism.
DETAILED>>To fight or not to fight is one’s own decision, not the enemy’s. This is a principle of military operations proposed by ancient Chinese. “Not to engage the enemy” does not mean passively avoiding confrontation, but means to avoid direct confrontation when the situation favors the enemy. One should not rush or be forced into confrontation just to respond to an enemy’s move. Instead, opt for a sustained defense to wear the enemy out and move them in a way that forces them to reveal their vulnerabilities. Then seize the opportunity to attack or counter-attack and win the battle. This concept emphasizes the importance of taking control in waging a war and advises against fighting when victory is not assured.
DETAILED>>The term is used to describe efforts to teach people essential ideals and principles of renwen (人文) and guide them to embrace goodness with the aim of building a harmonious – albeit hierarchical – social order, according to the level of development of a civilization and the specifics of the society. Renwen refers to poetry, books, social norms, music, law, and other non-material components of civilization. Hua (化) means to edify the populace; cheng (成) refers to the establishment or prosperity of rule by civil means (as opposed to force). The concept emphasizes rule by civil means, and is another expression of the Chinese concept of “civilization.”
DETAILED>>She (社) is the God of the Earth, and ji (稷 millet), represents the God of the Five Grains. Chinese kings and vassals of ancient times offered sacrifices to these gods. As the Han people depended on farming, these gods were the most important primitive objects of worship. The ancient rulers offered sacrifices to the gods of the Earth and the Five Grains every year to pray for peace and good harvests in the country. As a result, sheji became a symbol of the nation and state power.
DETAILED>>The greater seal script is a form in the evolution of Chinese characters. Standing in contrast to the lesser seal script, it has two meanings. The narrow meaning specifically refers to the pre-Qin script engraved on stones (zhouwen籀文), modeled after stone-drum script in the Kingdom of Qin during the Warring States Period. It features heavy strokes, duplicated structures and an overall pattern more regular and standard than inscriptions of earlier times on bronze objects. The broader meaning refers to all kinds of stone-engraved characters including inscriptions on bronze ware, greater seal script and the stone script of all kingdoms in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. It was replaced by the lesser seal script after the Kingdom of Qin unified China.
DETAILED>>Small seal script is a style of calligraphy derived from big seal script. After unifying the country, the First Emperor of Qin（259-210BC） ordered Li Si（?-208BC）, his prime minister, to simplify the big seal script that was most popular in the Western Zhou period. This simplified script was officially issued as the standard form of handwriting. Small seal script uses beautifully cursive and uniform lines, facilitating handwriting and reading by reducing the number of variant forms of Chinese characters. Characters written in this style are gracefully long and symmetrical; they feature a smooth starting stroke and a natural, final vertical one. The curvy lines vary as the calligrapher wishes, thus producing many simple yet elegant variations. Calligraphers of all ages have loved small seal script, a unique style of calligraphic art. It was replaced by clerical script in the Han Dynasty.
DETAILED>>Originally, the term meant to command a good knowledge of documents from pervious dynasties. Wen (文) referred to documents, and xue (学) referred to the study of these documents. Later, the term referred to articles and documents in general as well as the knowledge about those documentations. The term had three main meanings. Firstly, from the pre-Qin period to the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, it meant knowledge of ancient literature, especially that of humanities including poetry, history, rites and music, as well as works of laws and regulations. Starting from the Wei and Jin dynasties, the term basically became equivalent to today’s concept of literature, but it also referred to academic writings on humanities. With the introduction of the Western concept of literature in recent history, the term gradually evolved to mean a pursuit that uses language to create aesthetic images. However, a few scholars, such as Zhang Taiyan（1869—1936）, stuck to its traditional definition. The original meaning of the term determined the mainstream view on literature in contemporary China, which focuses on examining a literary phenomenon in the broader cultural context and emphasizing the intrinsic relationship between the aesthetic values of literature and liberal arts. This is somewhat different from the Western notion of literature which highlights the independent nature of literary appreciation. Secondly, the term refers broadly to various kinds of articles and documents in ancient times. Thirdly, it refers to scholars who promote learning through writing and teaching, as well as officials in charge of culture and education.
DETAILED>>Originally, the concept denoted that kings, princes, and other rulers should love their kingdoms and their people the same way they did their own families. This is because in ancient China, family and state were considered same in structure. Later on, this concept became a moral value cherished by all patriotic people. It means that all those who love their motherland are intimately bound together as if they were from the same family, so they should love their country and its people in the same way they love their families. Loving one's country is a profound and enduring tradition of the Chinese nation. It is at the core of the spirit of the Chinese nation, and it is a firm conviction of all Chinese, giving them a shared sense of belonging.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the philosophical substance of a work as well as its literary appeal conveyed to readers through its artistic image. In other words, it means the philosophical insights and aesthetic engagement that readers acquire through the process of appreciatively reading classic literary works. For example, poets of the Wei, Jin, or Southern and Northern dynasties were fond of entertaining abstruse schools of philosophy in their poems, while Song-dynasty poets often used poetry to comment on the society of their time. Both practices were treated as faults by some critics of later times. Some later critics even maintained that philosophical content should never figure into a poem apart from artistic images. Instead they insisted that the substantial content of the poem should be conveyed only by means of artistic images so that it could be grasped by readers through their appreciation of the work’s artistic features, thus the term “substance through artistic appeal.” Li (理) in this phrase refers to insights derived from the experience of life rather than bookish knowledge and learning. It is not something that can be acquired or expressed through logical argument. Qu (趣) refers to the aesthetic delight readers obtain when they acquire insight into life through reading classic literary works. This concept turns the dispute over whether poems could present logical arguments into a theory of the integration of reason and taste in poetic writing. It helps critics appreciate dialectically those literary works that contain both logic and insight.
DETAILED>>The concept means the use of concise language that conveys ample implications. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties pointed out that this was a shared characteristic of the Confucian classics, and he also regarded it as a basic rule for writing in general. Simple diction is relative to the goal of expressing ideas – avoiding superfluous language as long as the message is fully communicated. At the same time, in order to make the meaning clearer and easier for readers to understand, it does not exclude sufficient discussions and descriptions, such as the use of repetitious lyrics to amplify emotional expression in The Book of Songs. The concept is also used to refer to employing special literary devices to express sentiments hard to describe with words, which may evoke varied responses from different readers, as well as arouse abundant feelings in the individual reader.
DETAILED>>The original meaning of this phrase is that a piece of white silk must be prepared before one can paint. The concept was then extended to mean that beauty comes from natural simplicity. From this, Confucius (551-479 BC) put forward the notion that benevolence and righteousness are fundamental and the code of ethics secondary, emphasizing that the teaching of the rites originates in human nature. This concept was later introduced into literary and artistic creation and criticism, which advocates that elaboration should be based on substance, and that style and substance should be compatible and complement each other to bring out the natural beauty.
DETAILED>>This notion means that there is no really existing self. Buddhism holds that a so-called subject in the reincarnation does not exist at all. That is why it is called “egolessness.” This idea was originally directed against the thinking of the then-popular Brahmanism. This religion assumes that in the unpredictable and complex subjective experience there is a permanent and unchanging self. Whereas Buddhism holds that the so-called “I” is just an aggregate of many psychological and physical phenomena. The idea was later extended to areas beyond the subject in life, that is, people and other existence are all egoless. Namely nothing has an enduring and constant core essence or a real self.
DETAILED>>This term means lack of permanence. Everything in the world comes into being through a combination of causes and conditions. It perishes without them. There is no permanent, unchanging essence which one may see as the basis of its identity. Buddhism distinguishes two levels of impermanence. First, impermanence of successive appearance: A living individual lacks any essence, such as that of a soul, which does not change in a succession of birth and death. Continuity and similarity are mere appearance. Second, impermanence of every thought-instance: It emphasizes that everything which has arisen from the combination of causes and conditions changes, arises and is extinguished in the instant of a thought.
DETAILED>>It’s a generic term in history for performing arts, including martial arts, magic, taming animals, song and dance, farce, tightrope walking, knife swallowing, walking on fire, and other acrobatic performances. Such performing arts were diverse in both form and content and the performance could easily take place, the only criterion being to entertain the popular audience. Such performances began in Han times, and as culture and art forms from different ethnic groups were slowly integrated into local practice, performing arts and acrobatics came to be increasingly diversified. The term baixi (百戏) literally means “a hundred forms of performances,” and suggests, different kinds of performing arts. After the Southern and Northern Dynasties another term, sanyue (散乐), became synonymous with baixi. During the Tang Dynasty the performing arts became even more popular. In Song times sanyue came to refer mainly to song and dance performances or operas created by men of letters; while baixi came to mean principally acrobatic shows by folk artists. At times the authorities would impose a ban on baixi, believing that such performing arts exerted a bad influence on social customs. Still it is fair to say that baixi gave birth to high- brow song and dance as well as operas. It turned acrobatics into a form of intangible cultural heritage, enriching the cultural life of the people.
DETAILED>>The two characters literally mean the different parts of a plant, namely, its root and its foliage. The extended meaning is an important concept in Chinese philosophical discourse. The term can be understood in three different ways. 1) Ben (本) refers to what is fundamental or essential, while mo (末) means what is minor or incidental, two qualities that differ in value and importance. 2) Ben refers to the existence of the world in an ontological sense, while mo represents any specific thing or phenomenon. 3) In Daoist political philosophy ben is a state in which rule is exercised by not disrupting the natural order of the world, while mo refers to moral standards and fundamental principles governing social behavior. In any ben-mo relationship, ben is most important and plays a dominant role, while mo exists thanks to ben. On the other hand, it is through the vehicle of mo that ben exerts its influence. Thus the two, though different, are mutually dependent.
DETAILED>>The term originally referred to true colors and has been extended to mean true appearance. As a term of literary critique, bense (本色) has three meanings: 1) the artistic style and literary features that are compatible with a given genre; 2) the style and literary features that remain true to the writer’s individual character; and 3) the style that makes it possible for the writing to remain true to the author’s own experience and that gives truthful expression to his thoughts and feelings. Bense is not only a requirement for the writer but also for his works. In the literary criticism of the Song Dynasty, bense was often used to describe and evaluate the special qualities of different genres. In the literary criticism of the Ming and Qing dynasties, bense usually referred to the individual style of poets and writers and also those styles of writing that remained true to life experience and eschewed literary embellishment. Bense is often used together with danghang (当行professionalism) to mean “original and genuine”; it is often associated with the Dao of nature in classical Daoist philosophy, in opposition to the attitude and styles that stress literary embellishment.
DETAILED>>Bhūtatathatā refers to the suchness of all existents. Buddhism rejects ontological claims but still needs to deal with reality. Therefore, Buddhist reality can be roughly described as a state of suchness rather than actuality. Bhūtatathatā lies at the core of Mahayana Buddhism, where it is defined as the emptiness of all beings. Since the intrinsic nature of the beings can never be understood, there is nothing behind the concept “suchness.” Thus, bhūtatathatā refers to the reality that only the pandits can observe.
DETAILED>>Originally, this referred to the chanting of Buddha’s or a bodhisattva’s virtues in the form of poems and verses by Buddhist monks, and now it refers to their chanting of Buddha and Buddhist scriptures during pujas. Pāthaka means“to stop”or“to praise.” Brāhma pāthaka is a form of religious language imbued with a beautiful undulating melody and a complete structure of chanting, including hymns, verses, mantras, and texts. Ancient Indian Buddhism was introduced to China during the Eastern Han Dynasty, and gradually fused with Chinese indigenous thought and culture to form Chinese Buddhism. The original chanting form of ancient Indian Buddhism was also gradually adapted to the Chinese context and fused with native Chinese tunes to form brāhma pāthaka with Chinese characteristics, which became an important part of traditional Chinese music. The landmark event of its adaption to the Chinese context was the creation of the brāhma pāthaka by Cao Zhi (192-232) during his trip to Yushan (in present-day Dong’e, Shandong Province), which gave Chinese Buddhist chanting a native tune. Brāhma pāthaka was later applied by monks and lay people in the Western and Eastern Jin dynasties and the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and has evolved into the art of Chinese brāhma pāthaka, which is still in active use in Buddhist pujas in China today.
DETAILED>>Buddha-nature is a latent seed or potentiality inherent to the sentient beings that may, once matured, result in the achievement of Buddhahood. Buddha-nature, or Buddha element, is universally present in all sentient beings, thanks to which, those who can withstand the difficult engagement of (Buddhist) practice throughout their lives in samsara, will finally attain the goal of enlightenment. Conceptually, it has a close affinity with another term tathāgatagarbha (literally the womb of the Tathagata), which emphasizes the nature of purity as being innate in the minds of all sentient beings and capable of being manifested under proper circumstances.
DETAILED>>The recollection of the Buddha is a mental practice of developing concentration on a pure object. It often comes under such a category as “the six recollections” or “the ten recollections” along with the recollections of dharma, sangha, morality, breathing, and so on. Among them, the recollection of the Buddha is the most common practice of contemplation. It instructs one to recollect the supremacy and rarity of the Buddha so that one can eliminate distraction and prepare oneself for more profound meditation. Such recollection can be carried out in a variety of ways. For example, chanting “Namu Amida Butsu” (literally “I salute Amitābha”) is a popular practice of the Pure Land School.
DETAILED>>Chuci (楚辞 ode of Chu) was a poetic genre first attributed to Qu Yuan (340?-278? BC). It later became the title for the first anthology of poetry depicting the culture in south China. Chuci was so named because it made use of Chu (now Hunan and Hubei provinces) dialect, accent, and local special genres to describe the unique landscape, history, and folklore of the State of Chu. The term chuci first appeared in the early Western Han Dynasty, and later Liu Xiang (77?- 6 BC) compiled a literary collection including 16 pieces written by Qu Yuan, Song Yu, Huainan Xiaoshan (a group of authors of the Western Han Dynasty), Dongfang Shuo ( 154- 93 BC), Yan Ji, Wang Bao, and Liu Xiang. When Wang Yi later compiled Annotations on Odes of Chu, he added a work of his own to the collection, making it an anthology of 17 works. Through its distinctive genre and unique cultural elements, chuci reflected the special culture of the Chu region in southern China. As a genre, chuci is characterized by profound emotions, wild imagination, and rich allusions to the remote historical mythology from the dawn of Chinese history. It demonstrates an innovative and distinctive literary genre and spirit, standing with The Book of Songs as twin literary pinnacles. Later generations called this genre Chuci Style or Sao Style (Flowery Style), and its research chuci studies.
DETAILED>>Ci (词) originated in the Tang and the Five Dynasties, and developed to maturity as a new literary form in the Song Dynasty. Also known as “lyric with a melody,” “yuefu (乐府) poetry” or “long and short verses,” ci developed from poetry. Its main feature is that it is set to music and sung. Each piece of ci has a name for its tune. There are strict requirements for the number of lines and the number of characters as well as tone pattern and rhyming in different tunes. In terms of length, ci is divided into short lyrics, medium lyrics, and long lyrics. In terms of musical system, a piece of ci is usually divided into two stanzas of que (阕) or pian (片), as ancient Chinese called them. Occasionally, it consists of three or four stanzas, or just one. Thus, the music can be played once or many times. In terms of style, ci falls into the graceful and restrained school and the bold and unconstrained school. The former is delicate and sentimental, often describing family life and love, while the latter is bold and free, often expressing one’s vision about major social issues like the fate of the nation. Many literati and scholars of the Song Dynasty composed ci lyrics, which played a significant part in promoting its development. Today, ci is generally not set to music and sung. Rather, it is a literary form composed in accordance with the requirements of a music tune.
DETAILED>>Ci (词 a form of poetry with long or short verses which can be set to music and sung) and qu (曲 a form of rhyming compositions which can be set to music and sung) are a combined appellation for two kinds of literary styles. In Complete Library of the Four Branches of Literature, they are listed at the very end of the “Collections” section (Qu is a sub-genre and is not listed in the table of contents). This is because according to the literary views of ancient scholars, poetry and essays were the only accepted tradition to express important ideas. To write in the form of ci (lyric) and qu (melody) was only seen as a minor skill showing a person’s talent. Sometimes, the combined appellation ciqu also refers to traditional opera and genres of performances featuring speaking and singing.
DETAILED>>The concept means different things in different contexts. In terms of institutions of learning, it refers to the institution of highest learning, the imperial academy, established by the state, which is different from local schools. When it comes to content of learning, it refers to what a complete man should learn, namely, general rules and principles on governance and human relationship, which are different from that of xiaoxue (小学 Little Learning), namely, learning of words and specific rites or skills. In terms of objective, great learning aims to help students develop sound personality and moral integrity and thus make them qualified for exercising governance.
DETAILED>>The term has two different meanings. One is an individual’s fine moral character, or his proper conduct in society. At first de (德) was only related to an individual’s behavior, referring to his external moral conduct. Later, it also referred to something that combined external behavior with internal emotions and moral consciousness. The other meaning of de refers to the special laws and features obtained from Dao, or the physical manifestation of the hidden and formless Dao, as well as the internal basis for the origination and existence of all things.
DETAILED>>Ding was a vessel to cook food and was also used as an important ritual object in ancient times. Legend has it that Emperor Yu of the Xia Dynasty had nine dings cast, symbolizing the nine regions in the country. Ding was regarded as embodying the legitimacy and authority of the throne during the three dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou. Ding was mostly cast in bronze, usually with two ears and three or four legs. The three legs stood for the “three chief ministers” (the three most powerful official positions in ancient times in charge of national civil administration, the judiciary, and military affairs). The four legs stood for the four advisors to the emperor. After the Qin Dynasty, ding gradually lost its function as a symbol of royal authority, but the word ding was still used to refer to the royal throne, the monarchy, or state power. It was also given the meaning of “glory,” “grandeur,” and “dignity.”
DETAILED>>This term means the suffering from afflictions. The implications of “suffering” in Buddhism are very broad. Namely it refers to the physical and the mental pain experienced in specific events. It also refers to the suffering when joy fades, up to the suffering that all is impermanent and changing. On the whole one speaks of “three kinds of sufferings,” namely “suffering qua suffering or duh khaduh,” “suffering of change, or viparināmaduhkhatā,” and “suffering inherent in conditioning, or samskāraduhkhatā.” The understanding of “suffering” is the starting point to practice the Buddhist doctrine: only when one recognizes that life is suffering can one be determined to try to understand and to analyze the causes of suffering. After that one may eliminate these causes through effective methods. As a consequence one may stay away from affliction and even from the reincarnation. These are the four truths: suffering, its cause, its extinction, and the path.
DETAILED>>Dui (marsh) is one of the eight trigrams, bundled together in the shape of ☱. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams, composed of two trigrams like this. In the eight-trigram system, it symbolizes the marsh or lake. The marsh fosters all forms of life, therefore making everything pleasant. The term is composed of one broken line and two unbroken lines. It is considered a yin trigram and a symbol for the female. Since the broken line lies above the two whole lines, it is considered to stand for the youngest daughter of a family.
DETAILED>>This term refers to powerful expressiveness and artistic impact that come from a literary work’s purity of thoughts and emotions, as well as from its meticulously crafted structure. Despite some difference in interpreting the term, people tend to agree that fenggu (风骨) can be understood as being lucid and fresh in language while sturdy in structure. Feng (风) means “style,” which emphasizes that a literary work should be based on pure thoughts, vivid impressions, and rich emotions so as to produce an effect of powerful expressiveness. Gu (骨) means “bones” or proper structure, figuratively. It stresses the impact of structure and sentence order, requiring a piece of writing to be robust, vigorous, profound, and yet succinct. If a piece of work is wordy and overly rhetorical but weak in content, then it lacks the impact of a “proper structure,” no matter how flowery its expressions are. If such writing is awkward in delivery and has no emotions and vitality, then it lacks expressiveness in “style.” Fenggu does not preclude, but rather combines with linguistic elegance in order to create a piece of good work. Good command of fenggu depends on the personality and dispositions of the author. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie （465？-520? or 532?）of the Southern Dynasties devoted a chapter to the discussion of fenggu, which is the first essay on writing style in the history of classical Chinese literary criticism.
DETAILED>>This is one of the eight trigrams, bundled together
in the shape of ☶. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams, composed
of two trigrams like this. In the eight-trigram system, it
symbolizes the mountain. The mountain is still, meaning that everything can be
brought to a
conclusion and
gets what it is supposed to obtain. The term is composed of one unbroken line
and two broken lines. It is considered a yang trigram and symbolizes the male. As the unbroken line lies above the two broken
lines, it is considered to stand for the youngest son of a family.
Classical Chinese music theory combined tone and pitch to classify and name different types of music, as well as to describe their characteristics. The seven notes are known as gong (宫 corresponding to 1 in the numbered musical notation), shang (商 corresponding to 2), jue (角 corresponding to 3), bianzhi (变徵 corresponding to 4), zhi (徵 corresponding to 5), yu (羽 corresponding to 6) and biangong (变宫 corresponding to 7). Any one of them can be used as a major tune along with other notes set in particular intervals to form a mode. The mode with gong as the major note is called gong, the mode with the rest of the notes as major ones are called diao. The seven modes with the accompaniment of 12 temperaments can theoretically have 12 gongs and 72 diaos, altogether 84 modes of music. However, in practical music, not all the gongs and diaos were used. Only seven gongs with each having four tunes (all together 28 modes of music) were used for imperial court music in the Tang and Song dynasties. Seven gongs and 12 diaos were used for music to go along with poems in the Southern Song Dynasty. In the Yuan Dynasty, six gongs and 11 diaos were used for Northern music, and five gongs and four diaos were used for Southern music. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, only five gongs and four diaos were often used. Some music critics made rules for different gongs and diaos to be used for music for different occasions according to their characteristics. The theory of gongdiao played a role of direction and regulation in music creation for poems and operas and can be used to translate ancient music. It is an important subject for the study of ancient Chinese art
DETAILED>>The term, literally meaning the state and the body, has three meanings. First, it refers to the important ministers who help the sovereign ruler govern the state. Figuratively, the term suggests that the state is a human body and the ministers are the major components of the body. Second, it refers to the constitution and laws of a state. Third, it means national polity or dignity.
DETAILED>>Icchantika literally means one who desires. It refers to a person who is destitute of good conditions that lead to favorable results, such as awakening and liberation. Hence, it is also glossed as one deprived of merits. The major doctrinal debate over this concept is whether all sentient beings, including icchantikas, are capable of achieving the Buddhahood. In the view of the Vijñaptimātra School (alias the Mind-only School), for example, icchantikas are devoid of proper conditions in nature, therefore would never achieve the final goal. Whereas, in Tathāgatagarbha and Avataṃsaka traditions, all sentient beings are born with the nature of a Buddha, which only anticipates to manifest (at some point). Generally speaking, the former standpoint takes icchantika as innate, while the latter understands it as a temporary status.
DETAILED>>Ji (几) refers to an omen indicating the emerging or changing of things. Ancient Chinese believed that a subtle omen would appear before something new emerged or when something old was about to change, or before the differentiation of good and evil in human nature occurred. An omen is either visible or hidden inside something old. One should develop the ability to identify and use an omen. When one is adept at identifying an omen that something is emerging or changing and makes use of it at the appropriate moment, one can foresee and grasp the way things emerge and change, thus pursuing the desired course and avoiding harm.
DETAILED>>Jingjie (境界) originally meant border or boundary. Later, it was used to translate the idea of a mental realm in Buddhist sutras, a state of spiritual cultivation achieved after having overcome bewilderment in the material world. As a literary and artistic term, jingjie is mainly used to indicate the aesthetic depth in a literary work so as to give full expression to the author’s creativity, comprehension, and aesthetic faculties. A work reaching a high level of jingjie manifests the author’s true personality, transcends the ordinary, strikes a responsive chord in the heart of the reader, stimulates the reader’s imagination, and thus enhances the reader’s appreciation of his work. The term yijing (意境 aesthetic conception) came into being earlier than jingjie, which was formed under the influence of Buddhism in the mid-Tang period. In his Poetic Remarks in the Human World, modern scholar Wang Guowei （1877-1927）wrote extensively about jingjie. He often used yijing in the same sense as he used jingjie or the other way round. He created the theory of jingjie, in which he blended classical Western and classical Chinese aesthetics. Generally speaking, yijing refers to a perfect combination of the message the author conveys with the images he uses in his works, and it gives full rein to reader’s imagination. The concept of jingjie, however, foregrounds the sublimation of artistic images through mental insight, and emphasizes the role of the mental world in elevating the work of art to a higher level.
DETAILED>>Junzi (君子) was originally used to indicate a person’s social status, generally referring to a ruler or a member of the aristocracy. Beginning with Confucius（551-479 BC), the term acquired an additional moral dimension and came to mean someone of true virtue. The opposite of junzi is xiaoren (小人), which roughly means the “petty men.” In the Confucian tradition, junzi is someone who is above a scholar and below a sage in terms of moral influence. A man of virtue pursues and practices the ideal known as dao and regards dao as the fundamental meaning of life above power or gains.
DETAILED>>Kan (坎)
is one of the eight trigrams,
represented by the diagram ☵. It is also one of
the 64 hexagrams and composed of two trigrams like this . Kan symbolizes water, which moistens all things on earth. Since water always flows
toward or deposits in a lower place, it also implies mire or danger. The symbol is composed of one
unbroken line and two broken lines. It is considered a yang trigram and
symbolizes the male. With
the unbroken line in the
middle, it also represents
the middle son of a family.
In Buddhism, "affliction" refers to the confused or upset state of mind owing to the turbulence in one's physical or mental being. It is actually a self-imposed bondage incurred by misunderstanding. A common man, due to his ignorance, takes his self as real and then attaches to things (to fulfill his own desires). The desires drive many kinds of conduct, which then result in karma and the involvement in the cycle of rebirth. In this sense, affliction is essentially human bondage. There are three basic kinds of afflictions: greed, resentment, and ignorance, also known collectively as "the three poisons". In Buddhism, there is a meticulous classification of various afflictions, for it is believed that only by careful observation and by identifying each sort could one release himself from such bondages.
One of the eight trigrams, kun(坤) consists of three yin lines: ☷. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams when it consists of six yin lines: . According to scholars on The Book of Changes, as the kun trigram is composed only of yin lines, it is purely yin and is thus used to symbolize all yin things or principles. The kun trigram symbolizes earth, and when it comes to society, it symbolizes the social roles played the by the female, the mother, and the subjects of the ruler, as well as gentle, kind, and generous ways of doing things. In this context, kun also means creating and nourishing all things under heaven.
Li (礼) is a general term for social norms which regulate an individual’s relationship with other people, everything else in nature, and even ghosts and spirits. By setting various regulations about ceremonial vessels, rituals, and systems, rites define an individual’s specific status and corresponding duty and power, thereby differentiating between people in a community in terms of age, kinship, and social status. With such differentiations, the rites determine the proper position of each individual, thus achieving harmony among human beings, and between humanity and everything else in nature.
DETAILED>>The original meaning of li (理) was the texture of jade; later it was extended to contain three meanings: (1) the physical forms or proprieties of things, such as length, size, shape, tensile strength, weight, and color; (2) the universal laws followed by all things and beings; and (3) the original source or ontological existence of things. The last two meanings are similar to those of dao. Scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties were particularly interested in describing and explaining the philosophy known as li (理), and considered it as the highest realm, giving rise to the School of Principle which dominated academic thought in the period from the Song to the Ming dynasties.
DETAILED>>Li (离)
is one of the eight trigrams,
represented by the diagram ☲. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams
and composed of two trigrams like this . Li symbolizes fire, which implies drying up all things. Since fire depends on combustible material to spread, it implies a relationship of dependence. The term is composed of one broken line and two unbroken
lines. It is considered a yin trigram and symbolizes the female. The broken
line lies in the middle, therefore it stands for the middle daughter of a
family.
Humans are born with innate conscience and the ability to know and act upon it. The term liangzhi (良知) was first used by Mencius（372？-289 BC), who believed that what man knew by instinct was liangzhi (knowledge of goodness). The term includes ren (仁), i.e. love for one’s parents and yi (义), i.e. respect for one’s elder brothers. The concept is an important component of Mencius’ belief in the innate goodness of human nature. The Ming-dynasty philosopher Wang Yangming（1472-1529） raised the idea of “attaining liangzhi.” He extended the Mencius’ liangzhi to mean the principles of heaven, maintaining that all things under heaven and their laws were covered by liangzhi. With liangzhi being extended to its fullest (through self-cultivation and moral practice), it is possible to know and put in practice all moral truths.
DETAILED>>Pinli, meaning diplomatic etiquette and protocol for the visits by the lords to the king and by one lord to another, is an important part of political activity in ancient China. Depending on such factors as the status of visitor and host and the purpose and frequency of the visits, diplomatic etiquette was conducted at three levels: between two ducal lords ruling different states, involving a ministerial-level envoy, and involving senior officials. As the political conditions changed, pinli later also referred to the diplomatic ceremonial for visits involving rulers of countries and other independent political entities. The rules observed when paying tribute to a king and at other visits indicated the status and mutual relationships of the different political entities that were represented by the participants on such occasions. Later on pinli came to mean the formalities performed by the man’s side when getting engaged to a woman.
DETAILED>>“Designation” is the provisional naming that refers to things that lack any intrinsic nature. In Buddhism, some schools argue that nothing in the universe exists. The reason why things appear to be different from each other is that as soon as they are designated by different names, what the names refer to are mistaken as the distinctive objects that exist in reality. But the truth is that things are all made by the combination of certain conditions and circumstances and gain their names through superimposition of conceptions. Since the names of things cannot correspond to anything real, the names are known as mere “designations.”
DETAILED>>Qi (器) is a real object or a specific official, position, etc. A qi is something visible, or something one may describe in concrete terms. Every kind of qi has a specific form, function, or capability. Therefore there are clear distinctions between one qi and another. However, a common dao exists in different kinds of qi. The existence of a qi is based on dao. In terms of human affairs, an individual assumes a particular responsibility suited to his position； but he should go beyond his specific capabilities and strive to adhere to and obtain dao.
DETAILED>>Qi (vital force) has a material existence independent of subjective consciousness and is the basic element of all physical beings. It is also the basis for the birth and existence of life and spirit. In addition, some thinkers have given a moral attribute to qi. Qi is in constant motion and change, and has no specific shape. Its concentration gives birth to a thing and its evaporation signals the end of that thing. Qi permeates all physical beings and their surroundings. Qi, as a philosophical concept, is different from what is commonly understood by the word qi (气), namely, air. Although things in liquid or solid form are different from things in air form, from the perspective of the ancient Chinese philosophy, their formation and existence are the results of the concentration of qi.
DETAILED>>Qi (奇) means surprise while zheng (正) means direct and normal. First advanced by Laozi, the concept has two main meanings. First, it is a military term about two opposing ways of fighting. Zheng means meeting the enemy head-on based on an understanding of its intention，while Qi means keeping one’s intention to oneself and launching surprise attack and laying ambush on the enemy in order to secure surprise victory. Zheng and qi need to be applied in a coordinated way. While a military term, qizheng is also used to deal with daily affairs. Second, as a term of literary and art criticism, it means an article is pure and original in terms of theme and elegant and stylish in terms of diction. Liu Xie (465? –520) of the Southern Dynasty first introduced qizheng in literary criticism to oppose attaching excessive importance to form and novelty, a trend which was popular in the literary circles in the Qi and Liang dynasties. Liu Xie maintained that literary creation should be based on Confucian classics in terms of theme, to be embellished by stylish rhetoric. He believed that pure thought (zheng) must come before rhetoric (qi) so that an essay would be original in terms of theme and beautiful but unexaggerated in terms of diction. The term qizheng was later also used in literary criticism of poetry and opera.
DETAILED>>One of the eight trigrams, it consists of three yang lines: ☰. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams when it consists of six yang lines: . According to scholars on The Book of Changes, as the qian trigram is composed only of yang lines, it is purely yang and is thus used to symbolize all yang things or principles. The qian trigram symbolizes heaven, and in social terms, it symbolizes the social roles played by the male, the father, and the monarch, as well as decisive and vigorous ways of doing things. In this context, qian also means creating and leading all things under heaven.
This term refers to the emotional strength and the vitality of a literary work. It was first used during the Southern Dynasties, resonating with the social practice of making comment on people. The term was used to describe the emotional vigor and forcefulness of artistic works such as poetry, essays, calligraphy, and paintings. It is similar in meaning to fenggu (风骨), but contrary to fengzi (风姿), a term meaning external elegance of an artistic work.
DETAILED>>The term has three different meanings. First, it means human emotions and desires, referring to the natural and instinctive reaction to external circumstances, not a learned response. Second, it refers to specific human emotions and desires, commonly known as the six human emotions: love, hate, delight, anger, sadness, and joy, or as the seven human emotions: happiness, anger, sadness, fear, love, hatred, and desire. Third, it means the true state of affairs, or actual situation. For centuries, scholars have had different interpretations on the first two meanings. Some advocated that emotions should be restrained or controlled, while others believed that emotions and desires were natural and should be properly guided.
DETAILED>>Qu is the aspirations, emotions, and interests expressed in the work of a writer or artist. His pursuit of qu determines his unique perception and comprehension of nature and life. It also determines what theme he chooses for his work and how he gives expression to it. Qu is invisible but manifests its value and appeal through aesthetic appreciation.
DETAILED>>Qu (曲) is a literary form that came into being later than poetry and ci (词). It generally refers to the northern- and southern-style melodies created in the Song and Jin dynasties. Northern melodies were composed mostly with tunes in northern China and performed in northern dialect, while southern melodies had southern tunes and southern dialect. Since qu reached its peak in the Yuan Dynasty, it is generally known as Yuan qu or Yuan opera. Qu is similar to ci in form but is more flexible in sentence structure, and colloquial language is used. There are two main types of qu: one is northern zaju (杂剧) opera and southern chuanqi (传奇) opera； such qu is known as xiqu (戏曲) or juqu (剧曲). The other type is sanqu (散曲) or lyric songs, also known as qingqu (清曲). As with other forms of poetry, sanqu describes a scene, a sentiment or an event and can be sung, but it has no spoken parts or instructions for performers’ movements and expressions. Generally speaking, the old-style opera is much more accomplished and influential than sanqu. The Yuan period was a golden age in the development of Chinese opera. There are more than 80 known playwrights from that time. Guan Hanqing, Ma Zhiyuan (1251?-1321?), Bai Pu (1226-1306?), and Zheng Guangzu (?-
The term means to conceptualize an aesthetic feeling by selecting images that best express a poet’s sentiments and appreciation. The term qujing(取境) was coined by the Tang monk poet Jiaoran (720-796?) in his Poetic Styles. After conducting a review of how poets from the Six Dynasties to the mid-Tang Dynasty wrote poems, he concluded that to write poems, one must structure one’s thoughts ingeniously so as to generate a uniquely original conception with no trace of clichés. Then, after some deep thinking, an inspiration will arise and his imagination will run free. In this way, the poet can create a poem with a fine visionary world. Although the conception may be highly original, ultimately the style of the work should be simple and natural without any traces of having been laboriously crafted. This term is closely related to the terms jingjie (境界) and yijing(意境); together, they are part of a series of terms dealing with jing (境) in classical Chinese poetics.
DETAILED>>The basic meaning of the term is love for others. Its extended meaning refers to the state of harmony among people, and the unity of all things under heaven. Ren (仁) constitutes the foundation and basis for moral behavior. It is also a consciousness that corresponds to the norms of moral behavior. Roughly put, ren has the following three implications: 1) compassion or conscience; 2) virtue of respect built upon the relationship between fathers and sons and among brothers; and 3) the unity of all things under heaven. Confucianism holds ren as the highest moral principle. Ren is taken as love in the order of first showing filial piety to one’s parents and elder brothers, and then extending love and care to other members of the family, and eventually to everyone else under heaven.
DETAILED>>Renwen (人文) encompasses the cultural and ethical progress created by rites, music, education, codes, and systems as well as a social order which is hierarchical but harmonious. Renwen is in contrast to tianwen (天文), the study of celestial bodies including the sun, moon, and stars. Renwen also refers to human affairs in general, that is, behaviors, customs, and the human state. Under the influence of Western culture in the modern period, renwen came to mean cultural phenomena in human society as well as the humanities, which are academic disciplines that study human culture.
DETAILED>>In Buddhist terminology rūpa refers to perceivable things, comprising materiality and forms. Rūpa originally indicates things with a shape, objects recognized by the organ of sight. Rūpa further forms a pair with ming (名 nāman), or name, listed among the twelve links of dependent origination in the combination mingse (名色 nāmarūpa), name-and-form, indicating the totality of mind and matter of a living individual in transmigration (samsara). In general the term rūpa can denote any material form which is perceivable, perishable matter composed of atoms. But under circumstances Buddhist terminology also uses the concept of "non-informative matter" (avijňapti-rūpa), so as to distinguish it from visible matter, referring to something with form and causal efficacies, but of ineffable condition.
All beings ceaselessly move in the alternation of birth and death, like the turning of a wheel. The notion of the “turning of the wheel,” i.e., reincarnation, assumes that the soul does not follow the ruin and disappearance of the body. That is why it can ceaselessly return and be received in a new body in the alternation of life and death. In India before the birth of Buddhism, reincarnation was already a popular concept. Because in the reincarnation an individual must passively undergo the results of the actions of previous lives, the process is generally considered to be painful. The fundamental rationale of Buddhist thought is to understand the process of life, of going and returning in this cycle, an endless, continuous array of cause and effect. It furthermore emphasizes that by eliminating causes one can reach the goal of eliminating results and finally stop the “reincarnation,” thus being liberated from this suffering.
DETAILED>>Satya means unfailing truth in Sanskrit. Satyadvaya refers to truth at two levels: paramārtha-satya (the ultimate truth), which is based on the absolute nature, and saṁvṛiti-satya (the conventional truth), based on worldly phenomena. This division of truth according to the level of cognition originates in the canonical Abhidharma works, where names, words, appearances, and phenomena belong to the worldly realm, and real dharmas belong to the absolute realm. In the classics of Mahayana Buddhism, satyadvaya is widely adapted into the theory that all things, empty in nature, appear as complicated phenomena. (In other words, inherent emptiness appears as bhava, or worldly existence.) Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way interprets satyadvaya in another way. It argues, “The Buddhas teach the dharma to all sentient beings according to satyadvaya.” The conventional satya (truth) refers to all names, words, expressions, and interpretations of worldly phenomena, including the teachings of the Buddha, while the ultimate satya refers to the reality beyond word and appearance. This theory influenced a number of Buddhist schools. In the Sui Dynasty, Shi Jizang (549–623), the founder of the Three-treatise School, developed the theory into “the four levels of satyadvaya.” Shi Zhiyi (538–597), the founder of the Tiantai School, proposed a theory of “the three truths” by incorporating the middle-way truth to the existing theory of the empty truth (or the ultimate truth) and the false truth (or the conventional truth).
DETAILED>>The term has four meanings. First, it indicates a deity in a personified sense, possessing superhuman capabilities. Natural things, such as heaven and earth, mountains and rivers, sun and moon, and stars, have their deity. A human soul may also become a deity after death. Second, it indicates the human spirit and mind. Daoism considers “spirit” to be the dominating factor in human life. Therefore, maintaining and refining the spirit is most important to prolong life. Third, it indicates the subtle and unfathomable changing of all things as well as heaven and earth occurring under the interaction of yin and yang. In this sense the term is often used together with hua (化 change), the combination being called “divine change.” Fourth, it indicates a marvelous and unfathomable realm in life attained by a person.
DETAILED>>A kind of ethical self-cultivation advanced by the Confucian school of thought, the term has two different meanings: First, du (独) is understood as at leisure and alone. When people are alone, without someone else’s supervision, they easily act in an undisciplined and immoral way. Shendu (慎独) requires being careful with one’s conduct when being alone, consciously following morality and the requirements of etiquette. Second, du is understood as an inner true state. People may in their words and actions manifest what is in accord with morality and the requirements of etiquette, but in their heart they do not accept or pursue any morality or etiquette. Shendu requires that one makes efforts in one’s heart, so that one’s inner world is in agreement with the words and actions required by morality and etiquette.
DETAILED>>Shi (诗) is a major genre of ancient Chinese literature, the earliest literary form that emerged in China. Observing the requirements of a certain rhythm, rules of rhyming, number of characters, and type of verses, and using concise language and rich imagination, it reflects social life and conveys thoughts and emotions. Shi and wen (文) are two principal forms of ancient Chinese literature. Shi, as referred to by the ancient Chinese, consists of the older type of poetry and the latter type of poetry. It generally does not include ci (词 lyric) and qu (曲 melody), which appeared as literary genres after the Tang Dynasty. The older type of shi is also called gufeng (古风), meaning ancient style, which is a general appellation for all kinds of poetic forms produced prior to the latter type of shi, except the style employed in the odes of Chu. With relatively few restrictions in rules and forms, shi is not constrained by any antithetical arrangement or a fixed tone pattern, and its rhyme is fairly free. In addition, the length of a piece is not limited. A verse may have four, six, seven, or a mixed number of Chinese characters. The latter type of shi is also called gelüshi (格律诗), meaning poetry with fixed patterns. Its number of characters, rhyming, tone pattern, and antithetical arrangement are all strictly fixed. A poem of this type may contain four lines (known as jue 绝), each with five or seven characters, or eight lines (known as lü 律), each with five or seven characters. Occasionally, it is much longer than normal, expanding to one and a half dozen lines, which is referred to as pailü (排律). The difference between shi, and ci and qu is that the former is not set to music, while the latter may be set to music and sung. Shi has existed as a literary form for more than 2, 000 years in China. Ancient Chinese used shi to connect humans with nature, voice aspirations, and give expression to emotions. It embodied the spirit and aesthetic pursuits of literature and art in ancient China, which is very different from the West, which only sees poetry as a category of literature. In ancient China, Confucian thought played an important guiding role in poetic creation, while Daoist and Buddhist thoughts had a profound influence on the theory of poetry’s artistic conception. Since The Book of Songs was China’s earliest collection of poems, later generations also used shi to refer to The Book of Songs in particular.
DETAILED>>Pure land refers to a Buddha's field free of contamination and suffering. The idea derives from the notion of buddhakṣetra (literally Buddha-field), which is the dwelling place of an Enlightened One. That the multiple worlds each shelters a Buddha is a key doctrine in Mahayana Buddhism. Such a pure and well-decorated field is guaranteed by the pure mind of the Buddha therein – pure as opposed to the mundane world of the contaminated sentient beings. The Pure Land School focuses on the way to achieve liberation through chanting a Buddha's name, for example, Amitabha (literally unmeasured splendour), and taking rebirth in his pure land with the help of the Buddha's gracious vows.
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The basic meaning of this term is voidness. It denotes that things do not have a constant or unchanging essence. It also means that things are illusory, not real. The essence of something independently existing is called “own-being,” or “svabhāva.” Buddhism denies the existence of this kind of essence. Instead, it believes that all worldly phenomena are assembled or dispersed by causes and conditions. “Own-being” is just the solidification of conceptual thinking vis-à-vis the phenomenal world. “Absence of own-being,” or “nihsvabhāva,” namely the viewpoint of “emptiness,” is particularly prominent within the Great Vehicle (Mahāyāna) sect of Buddhism. It completely denies any permanent real nature summarized in any term or phrase, going as far as to include the doctrine of Buddhism itself.
DETAILED>>Taiji (the supreme ultimate) has three different meanings. First, it refers to the origin of the world. The ancient Chinese saw it either as qi (vital force) or yuanqi (primordial vital force) that permeates the chaotic world, or as a universal principle, i.e. dao or li (理), or as wu (无). Second, it is used as a term of divination, referring to the initial state before divinatory numbers, the odd number one (written as —) and the even number two (written as – –), are applied or before the yarrow stems are divided. Divination is conducted on the basis of taiji. Third, it stands for the highest point or boundary of space.
DETAILED>>Taixu (太虚) refers to a state of void in both space and things. Zhang Zai（1020-1077）, a thinker in the Song Dynasty, elaborated on the meaning of taixu, or great void. He believed that all things in heaven and on earth were made up of qi (气), and that taixu was its natural state, which was formless and motionless. When taixu coalesced, it turned into qi；when qi dissipated, it became taixu. Though taixu could not be felt by humans, it was not absolute emptiness and nothingness. Taixu gave life to all things in heaven and on earth by means of qi.
DETAILED>>Tathāgatagarbha refers to the potential to realize the Buddhahood inherent in all sentient beings. As an ontological foundation for Buddhahood, this potential is described in related sutras as the submerged essence of consciousness possessed by all sentient beings. It is sometimes confused with ālāyavijñāna, because both of them, pure and perfect, provide bases for freedom. From the late Wei and Jin dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasty, the study of “the dependent origination of tathāgatagarbha” became popular. It suggests that the tathāgatagarbha heart of all sentient beings opens two gates: the gate of tathāta (suchness) and the gate of generation and destruction. The former refers to the noumenon of tranquility, while the latter denotes the appearance caused by the functioning of ālāyavijñāna. This explains the reason why the noumenon of tranquility is capable of arising and being extinguished.
DETAILED>>One explanation for the kingly way (圣王之迹) contained here is that it refers to the meritorious deeds performed by the monarchs of the Western Zhou Dynasty, when they sent their men among ordinary people to collect folk poetry and learn about local customs. Here, shi (诗) refers to The Book of Songs, or simply the verses created by the common people, as described in Mencius. The term sheds light on how literature relates to society as a whole. Mencius (372?- 289 BC) was an ardent proponent of the kingly way, by which he expressed his longing for a saintly society with its corresponding system of rites and music. As such an ideal waned, the era of thriving rites and music drew to a close. With a fundamental change in social institutions and political climate, The Book of Songs lost the appeal it had once enjoyed, and the chanting of poetry also went out of fashion. Works of poetry similar to The Book of Songs could emerge no more. In its place, The Spring and Autumn Annals, a historical work known for its use of subtle and guarded language in criticism, appeared. This suited the needs of the new social conditions characterized by chaos and disorder, and explains the marked difference between The Book of Songs and The Spring and Autumn Annals in both style and content. This view, held by Mencius, became the source of poetry-related-to-history criticism.
The Spring and Autumn Annals is one of the Confucian classics, believed to have been compiled by Confucius（551-479 BC） based on the chronicles of the State of Lu. The book covers a period of 242 years from the first year of the reign of Duke Yin of Lu (722 BC) to the 14th year of the reign of Duke Ai (481 BC). The book was China’s first chronological history, and its title has come to mean all chronological histories. Its records of events are brief and its style is concise. Later Confucian scholars regarded the book as having “subtle words with profound meanings,” and described its implied and indirect style of writing, which makes both positive and negative criticism, as “the style of The Spring and Autumn Annals .” Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, Gongyang’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, and Guliang’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, together known as the “Three Commentaries,” are explications of this work. (Gongyang’s and Guliang’s commentaries explain the reasoning in the book, while Zuo’s commentary records historical events of this period but does not interpret The Spring and Autumn Annals. ) “Spring and Autumn” also refers to the Spring and Autumn Period, an era named after The Spring and Autumn Annals. There are two views about the period it spans: One is the period covered in the Annals, the other is the period from 770 BC, when King Ping of Zhou moved his capital from near present-day Xi’an in the west to present-day Luoyang in the east, until the year of 476 BC.
DETAILED>>Ti (体) has three different meanings in the study of literature, art, and aesthetics. First, it refers to features that distinguish one particular category, form, or literary school from others. These features represent the overall form and artistic characteristics, including the structure, content, language, style, and other essential elements. Second, it refers only to literary and artistic style, not their form or shape. Third, it refers to the basic literary and artistic form, i.e., the writing style and literary genre. Scholars of literary theory in different historical periods did not use the same standards to classify literary styles. For example, Xiao Tong (501-531, Crown Prince
Ti (体) and yong (用) can be understood in three different ways: 1) a physical thing and its functions or roles; 2) the ontological existence of a thing and its expression and application; and 3) the fundamental code of conduct, and its observance. In any ti–yong relationship, ti provides the basis on which yong depends.
DETAILED>>Tian (天) is a sacred and fundamental concept in ancient Chinese philosophy. It has three different meanings. The first is the physical sky or the entirety of nature (not including human society), the operations of which manifest certain laws and order. The second refers to a spiritual being, which possesses an anthropomorphic will and governs everything in the universe. The third denotes the universal law, which is observed by all things and beings, and which is also the basis of human nature, morality, and social and political orders.
DETAILED>>This term referred mainly to all the land under the name of the Son of Heaven and the right to rule on such land. The ancient Chinese held that the rule of senior officials was over their enfeoffed land, and that of dukes and princes was over feudal states. The rule of the Son of Heaven was over all the land. Literally, tianxia (天下) means “all under heaven.” It actually refers to all the territory embracing the enfeoffed land and feudal states under the rule or in the name of the Son of Heaven, as well as all the subjects and the right to rule. The term has later evolved to refer to the whole nation or the whole world.
DETAILED>>In Buddhism, the universe of sentient beings is composed of three realms: (1) the realm of desire (kāmadhātu), where the mind is motivated by sensual pleasures; (2) the realm of subtle forms (rūpadhātu), where the mind becomes uninterested in sensual objects but still engaged in conceptual mental activities; and (3) the realm of the formless (ārūpyadhātu), the higher level of a mind free from desire and conceptualization. Sentient beings are all subject to past and future deeds (karma), therefore trapped in the cycle of rebirth within the three realms. It is thus called the wheel of sufferings in the three realms. The idea of the three realms of existence reveals how the Buddhists understand the universe on the one hand, and how it is in relevance to the different stages of meditative achievements on the other.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to appropriate skilful means or methods. “Expediency” is often used together with “ingenuity” (kauśalya). It refers to the Buddha’s or to a bodhisattva’s preaching adapting to the circumstances, in order to convert beings. He used adroit words and terms and narrative techniques, so as to allow listeners of different backgrounds all understand and comprehend it and grasp the implied abstruse meaning. The concept of “expediency” is a key to the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) sect of Buddhism. It emphasizes that all verbal expressions, including the Buddha’s teaching, depend on the concept of the term and appearance. They cannot obtain the highest level. In a certain sense they are all expedient means, like a finger pointing at the moon. That is why they should not be literally interpreted. One should not cling to them.
Vijñāna, literally “understanding,” “recognition,” or “knowledge,” refers to the function of consciousness in Buddhism. It distorts a common man’s perception of the world and inflicts mental pain on him. To relieve the pain and restore a correct view, the man has to enhance his own consciousness. Generally regarded as a school of idealism, Yogācāra, literally “mind only,” argues that all worldly phenomena are actually shaped by consciousness, which can be divided into at least two parts: the seeing and the seen. Such consciousness is able to lay the foundation for cognition even before the external world exists. According to Yogācāra, there are eight types of consciousness based on objects of cognition. The six fundamental types of sensory consciousness of the eyes, the ears, the nose, the tongue, the body, and the mind respectively perceive form, sound, smell, taste, shape, and dharma. The seventh type of consciousness is kliṣṭamanovijñāna (“deluded consciousness”), and the eighth ālāyavijñāna (“storehouse consciousness”). Kliṣṭamanovijñāna performs a function of constant reflection, on which the consciousness of the mind is posited. It also persistently conceives ālāyavijñāna as the physical self. Ālayavijñāna, the repository of the seeds of karma, keeps the purity of all types of consciousness from being contaminated, even though they are in a state of contamination themselves. In order to sort out the entanglement of pollution and purity, the School of the Mahāyānasaṃgraha proposes another consciousness, amalavijñāna (immaculate consciousness), which distinguishes truth from falsehood.
DETAILED>>Wenhua (文化) means to cultivate the populace through rituals, music, laws and so on. The term encapsulates the concept of teaching people essential ideals and principles of human culture while guiding them to embrace goodness so as to build a social order that is both differentiated and harmonious. In the traditional Chinese context, wenhua is the main method of governing the state advocated by Confucianism, as opposed to wugong (武功 the use of force or even violence to achieve social governance). In modern times, wenhua is used as the Chinese equivalent of the word “culture,” which usually refers to all human cultural activities and achievements; in archaeology, it refers to the complex of relics and monuments of a given historical period; in everyday language, it also refers to the ability to use language and general knowledge.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a thriving, prosperous, and perceptibly refined society in which people behave in a cultured fashion. Wen (文) refers to the arts and humanities, including social norms, music education, moral cultivation, and a social order that is hierarchical yet harmonious. Ming (明) means bright, prosperous, and highly civilized. The Chinese nation has always preferred wen to wu (武 force). This is the loftiest ideal pursued by the Chinese nation since ancient times. It was also the criterion by which to judge whether the governance of a nation was well conducted.
DETAILED>>Wenqi (文气) is the personality an author demonstrates in his works, and is a fusion of his innate temperament and the vitality seen in his works. Originally, qi (气) referred to the basic element in the initial birth and formation of all things, as well as heaven and earth. In literary criticism, it refers to an author’s distinctive individuality and its manifestation in his writings. Humans are believed to develop different characters and traits endowed by the qi of heaven and earth. Reflected in literary creation, such different characters and traits naturally find expression in distinctive styles and varying degrees of vigor as well as rhythm and cadence.
DETAILED>>Wu (物) usually denotes an existence in the universe that has a form or an image. In general, the word has three different meanings. First, it refers to any concrete existence, encompassing all natural and man-made objects, all organisms and human beings. Second, it covers interpersonal matters and activities such as taking care of one’s parents, entering politics, or managing state affairs. In this sense, wu means “matter.” Third, the word sums up all existing physical and social matters, generally called “everything.”
DETAILED>>Wu (无) is regarded as the original source or ontological existence of the world in classical Chinese thinking. Laozi claimed that “you (有) is born out of wu.” This concept was further developed by He Yan（？-249）, Wang Bi（226-249）, and other thinkers of the Wei and Jin dynasties, who maintained that heaven, earth, and all things in the world originate from wu. No specific being, they argued, can be the original source or ontological existence of another being, much less of the world. The formation and existence of everything depend on wu, which is the fundamental source that transcends all tangible beings. Only an intangible and unidentifiable ontological existence gives countless specific beings their functions.
DETAILED>>There are three meanings to the term. (1) The five fundamental things or elements that make up all things. The Book of History was the first to define the five elements: metal, wood, water, fire, and earth. Each of these has its own properties and they interact in a generative or destructive relationship. (2) On a more abstract level, the term refers to the basic framework to understand the world. All things can be included in the realm of wuxing (五行) and their properties are explained or understood accordingly. (3) It refers to five kinds of moral behavior. Xunzi (313?-238 BC) once criticized Zisi (483-402 BC) and Mencius (372?-289 BC) for “creating wuxing on the basis of old theories.” Ancient bamboo slips unearthed from a grave at Guodian dating back to the State of Chu as well as inscribed silk texts from the Mawangdui Tomb of the Western Han Dynasty, all describe this wuxing as benevolence, righteousness, li (礼), wisdom, and the wisdom and character of a sage.
DETAILED>>Xiang (象) refers to a visible but formless image or figure. It approximately has four different meanings. First, it refers to a manifest shape of dao. Laozi described dao as “a semblance of the unsubstantial,” also called “the great semblance.” Second, it indicates a manifest shape of objects. Xiang is less concrete or fixed than an object with a shape. It often means celestial phenomena, namely, the movements of the sun, the moon, and the stars, and the occurrence of wind, thunder, clouds, and rain. Celestial phenomena are relative to earthly shapes. Third, it refers to human temperament, namely, the human spirit and mind, manifested in words, deeds, and attitude. Fourth, it refers to figures symbolizing or imitating all things in heaven and on earth. Ancient Chinese created many kinds of systems of xiang, through the observation and interpretation of which they elucidated the changes in the movements of nature and of society, and also their laws. Among them, the system of the hexagrams and figures of The Book of Changes is the most influential.
DETAILED>>Xing (性) mainly referred to human nature in ancient times. The concept of xing has two essential points. First, it refers to the inherent nature of all things, not as a result of nurture. Second, it refers to the common nature of certain kind of things, not the nature of individual things of that kind. Similarly, human nature, too, has two meanings. First, it refers to inherent attributes all people share, including physical features, desires, and consciousness. Second, it is the essential and distinct attribute that distinguishes people from birds and beasts, in other words, human’s moral nature. Scholars throughout history held varied views over the question whether human nature was good or evil. Some believed it was good. Some thought it was evil. Some held that it was neither good nor evil. Some held that human nature could be both good and evil in the same person. Some thought that human nature was good in some people, but evil in others.
DETAILED>>The term means the use of analogy, association, and inner sustenance in writing a poem to give implicit expression to one’s sentiments, thus enabling the poem to convey a subtle message. The term was first used by the Tang dynasty poet Chen Zi’ang（659-700）. Xing (兴) means the development of inner feelings invoked by external objects, and ji (寄) means finding sustenance in them. Later it was extended to mean that poetry should be written to convey a message of praise or satire. The term carried on the pre-Qin poetical tradition of creating inspiration by writing about a subject and stressed that while depicting sentiments in poetry, the poet should find sustenance in it. The term represented an important development of the theory of analogy and association. It played a major role in ensuring that poets in the prime of the Tang Dynasty broke away from the poetic style of the Qi and Liang of the Southern Dynasties, which pursued ornate language instead of inner sustenance, thus enabling Tang poetry to develop in a healthy way.
DETAILED>>The term refers to an individual’s inner mind vis-à-vis the outside world, which consists of two aspects, namely, temperament and talent. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, xingling (inner self) became widely used in literary writing and criticism. It refers to the combination of a writer’s temperament and talent, other than his social ethics, political beliefs, and literary traditions; and it stresses that literature is inspired by traits of individuality and should give expression to them. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, along with the trend of giving free rein to individuality and shaking off intellectual straitjacket, renowned scholars such as Yuan Hongdao（1568-1610） and Yuan Mei （1716-1798）advocated giving full expression to one’s inner self, namely, one’s thoughts, sentiment, emotion and views. They underscored the role of intellectual and artistic individuality in literary creation as opposed to the rigid School of Principle of the earlier Song and Ming dynasties, literary dogma and blind belief in classicism which constrained people from expressing human nature and inhabited literary creativity. The Xingling School thus became an important school in literary creation.
DETAILED>>The term refers to charm inherent in an inspiration, or charm created when the object or scene depicted in a poem is appreciated. It is a type of aesthetic enjoyment contained in a poem which is gained through the reader’s act of appreciation. In Canglang’s Criticism of Poetry, Yan Yu（？-1264）, a poetry critic of the Southern Song Dynasty, voiced his love for poetry’s emotional charm and argued against direct expression of an idea in poetry. He stressed the need to enable readers to gain insight and satisfaction in a natural way through personal reflection and contemplation. This term later became an important criterion for evaluating poetry, exerting a strong influence on the poetry theories of the Ming and Qing dynasties.
DETAILED>>Inspiring imagery is an artistic achievement of profound literary significance and with great aesthetic taste, obtained through the perfect blending of an author’s feelings with an objective situation or scenery. Xing (兴) is an impromptu inspiration of the author, and xiang (象) a material object he borrows from the external world in his writing. Tang-dynasty poetry critic Yin Fan first used the term “inspiring imagery” in his “Preface to A Collection of Poems by Distinguished Poets” in commenting on the works of poets in the golden period of the Tang Dynasty. It later became a standard for assessing the merit of a poetic work.
DETAILED>>Xu refers to a state of the cosmos or a state of mind. Basically, it has two different meanings. The first refers to the origin of the universe, indicating that everything originates from xu. Different ancient thinkers have different interpretations of this notion: Some take xu as being devoid of anything; others believe it is the state of existence of qi (气). Because qi is invisible and formless, it is said to be empty, but not a vacuum totally devoid of anything. The second meaning of xu refers to a state of mind that is peaceful, not preoccupied or simply free of any preconceptions.
DETAILED>>This term was first used by Laozi as a way to understand dao. He believed that one cannot understand dao by calmly observing everything unless one abandons all distracting thoughts and biases, and keeps one’s mind as clear as a mirror. Later literary critics believed that the state of mind as required for xuanlan has similarities with the state of mind required for literary writing and appreciation, thus they made it an important term to mean one’s state of mind must transcend all desires and personal gains in literary writing and appreciation.
DETAILED>>This refers mainly to the five-character-a-line poems of the Han and Wei dynasties in Selections of Refined Literature compiled by Xiao Tong (501-531), Crown Prince Zhaoming of the Liang Dynasty during the Southern Dynasties. Later, this term meant not just a specific type of poetry, but also both the prevailing poetic features of an era and general poetic style. Poems of this style were regarded as in the same rank as yuefu (乐府) poetry, which were folk songs and ballads collected and compiled by the Han government office in charge of musical preservation, or any poetic imitation equally suitable for musical composition, as well as gexing (歌行), which were odes to events or physical objects in free-verse form, and lüjüe (律绝), or poetry with fixed patterns. To poetic critics in later generations, xuanti (选体) poetry was synonymous with five-character poetry and was a standard way to write poems with five characters per line. In terms of style, it is elegant, richly colorful, and innovative. This type of poetry inherited the poetic tradition all the way from The Book of Songs and Odes of Chu to the Han and Wei dynasties, the Jin Dynasty, and the Song, Qi, and Liang during the Southern Dynasties. From the Tang Dynasty onward, many literary critics used the term “xuanti poetry” as a standard in their comments on poetry. This poetic style was criticized later by some creative-minded poets for its excessive emphasis on following the classical tradition.
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Xun(wind) is one of the eight trigrams, bundled together in the shape of ☴. It is also one of the 64 hexagrams, composed of two trigrams like this . In the eight-trigram system, it symbolizes the wind. The wind blows and disperses gently and permeates everything. The term is composed of one broken line and two unbroken lines. It is considered a yin trigram and symbolizes the female. Since the broken line lies under the two whole lines, it is considered the senior yin trigram and stands for the eldest daughter of a family.
Yi (义) means acting appropriately and doing things properly. The expression comes from The Book of Rites. It not only defines yi, but also refers to an important principle of state and social governance, that is, humans and all living things must act appropriately in line with the actual circumstances, to suit both the time and the individual. At the highest level, it means that all living things must follow their intrinsic nature to grow and become their best. It is an idea of governance that integrates the man-made and the natural, and also a view of responsibility and justice that is both necessary and inevitable.
DETAILED>>Yi fa refers to the guidelines and criteria for prose writing advocated by Fang Bao (1668-1749) of the Qing Dynasty, which concerns content, structure, and editing. He held up the structural composition of the historical texts The Spring and Autumn Annals and Records of the Historian as examples of fine prose, and popularized them. Yi (义) refers to content and meaningfulness, with an emphasis on substance and logic; fa (法) refers to structure and writing techniques, with an emphasis on appropriate language and sequence. Yi is primary and fa adjusts accordingly to express the content in a flexible and varied way, so as to ensure that the author’s opinion is clearly stated and the argument is powerful. The concept of yi fa is the cornerstone for the prose-writing theory of the Tongcheng School of the Qing Dynasty.
DETAILED>>The term yilun (彝伦), which corresponds to constant relations, first appears in The Book of History. In Chinese antiquity, it was believed that the relations of human life followed certain constant laws or yilun, which were derived from the imitation of and compliance with the heavenly way, and thus reflected the authority of Heaven. Yilun regulated the relations of human life and guaranteed its order. The primary task of the rulers, especially the Son of Heaven, was to grasp and follow these constant laws.
DETAILED>>Imagery refers to a typical image in literary works, which embodies the author’s subjective feelings and unique artistic conceptions. Yi (意) literally means an author’s feelings and thoughts, and xiang (象) refers to the image of a material object in the external world, an artistic image reflecting the author’s thoughts and feelings. In literary creation, imagery often refers to those images in nature with which an author’s feelings and thoughts are associated. Emphasizing the harmonious relationship between beauty in both form and content, it is a mature state of literary creation.
DETAILED>>The term means the primal source from which all things originate, both animate and inanimate, including human beings. Yuan (元) manifests itself in different forms. In the Han Dynasty, it was considered a kind of primal physical material that both produced and made up the myriad things of the world. The Book of Changes divides yuan into two primal sources: the heavenly source which gives birth to the sun, moon, and stars, and the earthly source which creates all other things on earth. In The Spring and Autumn Annals, the term refers to the first year in its chronologies, symbolizing the start of a new historical period, and serving as the manifestation in the human world of the natural process in which things begin, end, and are replaced.
DETAILED>>This is a term used in The Book of Changes to explain the meaning of hexagrams. It may be understood in two ways. First, when used in divination, it is a judgment predicting good fortune. Yuanheng (元亨) means a wide, smooth path or a grand sacrificial rite. Lizhen (利贞) refers to a favorable reading by a diviner and an auspicious prospect. Second, from the point of view of morality, it is believed to stand for four virtues associated with the qian (乾) hexagram. One view is that the four virtues are benevolence, rites, righteousness, and integrity; other views are that they represent four stages of life from birth to maturity, or four forms of moral conduct dictated by the way of heaven and adhered to by the sage in caring for all creatures.
DETAILED>>Yuanqi refers to qi in its original state, with yuan (元) denoting the beginning or the initial point. Yuanqi can neither be defined by shape nor be attributed to yin or yang. It existed prior to the emergence of heaven, earth, and all the things in between. After experiencing certain changes, it was separated into the qi of yin and yang, or that of heaven and earth. Hence the generation of all the things between heaven and earth. Some ancients regarded yuanqi as the origin of the world, while others believed that it was derived from the void, a more primitive state of being. Yuanqi sometimes refers to the qi that constitutes human bodies and all the other things in general.
DETAILED>>Yue (乐) is one of the six arts of ancient times, often mentioned together with li (礼 rites / social norms). In contrast to external rules and rites, music touches the emotions and thus can affect human behavior. However, not all music counts as the Confucian yue which must have the effect of making the listener calm and measured so as to willingly behave in accordance with social norms, and thus engage harmoniously with others. Yue is often associated with other forms of ceremonial actions; it is one important way of maintaining proper human relations and encouraging better social practices and customs.
DETAILED>>Yuefu (乐府) poems were written in the Han Dynasty. Originally, yuefu was a government office set up by the imperial court to train musicians, collect folk songs and ballads, compose music, and match musical instruments to it. It later came to refer to folk songs and ballads collected, matched with music, and played by court musicians. Poems of this style represented a new creation of ancient folk songs and ballads in the years after The Book of Songs was compiled, and equaled The Book of Songs and Odes of Chu in importance. About 50 to 60 yuefu poems have been handed down to this day. They truthfully depicted various aspects of society at the time and revealed genuine emotions, thus creating a literary tradition reflecting ordinary people’s sentiments. In particular, yuefu poems were noted for their vivid depiction of women’s life. All poems that could be chanted or were written with yuefu themes were collectively called yuefu poems in later times.
DETAILED>>Zaju, a unique dramatic genre of the Yuan Dynasty, grew out of the northern zaju of the earlier Song Dynasty. Originally drawing on popular local performing styles of the north, it later absorbed zhugongdiao, a kind of song-speech drama with mixed modes of musical tunes, as well as scores / scripts performed in brothels by courtesans of the Jin Dynasty. Well-known playwrights like Guan Hanqing in the early Yuan period refined and formalized these various styles into this unique dramatic genre. Zaju is made up of four acts, each with sets of songs starting from the same gongdiao note, and sung by the principal female or male performers. The gongdiao note changes with each act. The plots are complete and well-constructed, while the lively and interesting characters rely on a rich repertoire of dramatic gestures and expressions. Dadu, capital of the Yuan Dynasty, was a prosperous center of economic activity where scholars and performers mingled well, which encouraged the rapid growth of the zaju genre. However, the style declined together with the Yuan Dynasty and by the following Ming Dynasty, it had been replaced by other operatic and performing genres.
Zhen is one of the eight trigrams. Its diagram is ☳. It is also one of the 64 trigrams and composed of two trigrams like this . In the eight trigram system, this one basically means thunder, the shock of which causes all things to vibrate. Therefore it means vibration, impulse or mobilization. Composed of one whole line and two broken lines, it is considered a yang trigram, symbolizing the male in human relations. Since the whole line is at the bottom of this trigram, it is the first of the yang trigrams and stands for the eldest son of a family.
The term has three definitions. First, it describes two different dimensions of things: One is with form and the other without form. Second, it refers to two different stages or states of a thing during its generation, existence, and demise. You (有) refers to the state of a thing after it has come into being and before it dies out; wu (无) refers to the state of a thing before its birth and after its death. Third, you refers to any tangible or identifiable thing or the sum total of such things; wu refers to the original source or ontological existence, which is intangible and unidentifiable, and transcends all specific objects. With regard to the third definition, some philosophers consider wu to be the original source or ontological existence of the world, and you comes from wu; others believe that you is fundamentally significant, and dispute the notion that you owes its existence to wu. Despite their differences, you and wu are mutually dependent.
DETAILED>>Chuanqi (Legendary Story / Legendary Play)
This is a term for a literary form. It refers to three types of artistic works:
1) A type of short story in the Tang and Song dynasties that might be evolved from tales of the supernatural in the earlier Six Dynasties. Later its subjects widened to include social life, and stories about people and events. Chuan (传) means “legendary” and qi (奇) means “strange and unusual,” so the term originally means recounting tales of strange and extraordinary events that have been passed down by word of mouth. The work Legendary Stories by Pei Xing in the Tang Dynasty is probably the earliest work that uses the term. In the Song Dynasty, the Tang novel The Story of Yingying is considered a chuanqi, while the Yuan people called all Tang stories chuanqi of Tang. Song Dynasty chuanqi were more realistic and vernacular than those of the Tang.
2) Song-speech drama, Southern opera and Yuan zaju in the Song and Yuan dynasties, most of which were based on Tang stories.
3) Full-length operas in the Ming and Qing dynasties, which were based on the Southern Opera（Nanxi), and also included some Yuan zaju features. Typical works include The Story of Washing Gauze by Liang Chenyu (1519-1591), Peach Blossom Fan by Kong Shangren (1648-1718), The Palace of Eternal Life by Hong Sheng (1645-1704). The ancient style of chuanqi has evolved and been innovated over the centuries, both in story content and performance techniques. However, its main purpose is still to “tell stories of strange happenings and unusual people.”
Be Discreet as if Standing on Cliff Edge or Treading on Thin Ice
Be discreet and watchful as if one is standing on the edge of a cliff or treading on thin ice, both being precarious situations in which people need to exercise maximum caution to stay safe. One should observe the same discreet and care when it comes to adherence to ethics, rites and law as well as fulfilling one’s due responsibility. Any slackening may result in disastrous consequences. Hence the importance of being discreet and watchful.
DETAILED>>Have a Complete Image of the Bamboo Before Drawing It / Have a Fully Formed Picture in the Mind’ Eye
This term means to have an image of the art in one’s mind prior to artistic creation. It describes the use of mental imagery in the course of artistic creation, and also sets a requirement for both artistic creation and for design in craftsmanship. For the creator of an artwork, concepts, feelings, intentions and objects should be integrated in the mind to form an aesthetic image. After this artistic conceptualization is completed, technique is used in conjunction with physical materials to form a tangible work. For a craft designer, the emphasis would be more on rational thinking, and revisions would be permissible. Having a fully formed picture in advance is an ideal state.
DETAILED>>Prajna/Wisdom
The term is the transliteration of the Sanskrit word prajñā, meaning wisdom. It refers to the supreme wisdom with insight into the nature and reality of all things. Buddhism believes that such wisdom surpasses all secular understandings, and therefore is the guide for or essence of the effort aimed at achieving enlightenment and attaining Buddhahood or bodhisattvahood. This wisdom has no form, no appearance, and cannot be expressed in words. It can only be achieved by undertaking a variety of accessible Buddhist practices.
DETAILED>>The Haofang School / The Bold and Unconstrained School
This is one of the two ci (词) lyric schools of the Song Dynasty, which mainly dealt with major affairs of the nation and expresses noble aspirations. It featured broad vision and bold expression, often employing the methods of prose poetry and uninhibited by metric stereotypes. The first poet who used the term “bold and unconstrained” was Su Shi （1037-1101）who, together with Xin Qiji（1140-1207）, was widely acclaimed by Southern Song critics as the leading poets of this school. Northern Song writer Fan Zhongyan（989-1052） created this school with his ci lyric, A Fisherman's Song, which grew into a major poetic style thanks mainly to Su Shi's contribution. After the Central Plains fell to the Jin forces, the Song court fled south of the Yangtze River and was too weak to recover the lost territory. Many ci poets, led by Xin Qiji and supported by other prominent poets such as Chen Yuyi (1090-1139), Ye Mengde (1077-1148), Zhu Dunru (1081-1159), Zhang Yuangan (1091-1170?), Zhang Xiaoxiang (1132-1170), Lu You (1125-1210), Chen Liang (1143-1194), and Liu Guo (1154-1206), expressed their longing to return to the north in verses of a stirring style. They voiced their patriotic sentiments and identified their own fate with that of the whole nation. They thus enriched ci lyrics’ ways of expression and greatly lifted its status in the history of literature. Although poets of this school wrote in the bold and unconstrained style, they occasionally wrote graceful and subtle ci poems. And some of their works contained too many commentaries and allusions, were careless about the use of metric schemes, and read more like prose than poetry.
DETAILED>>Trigrams / Hexagrams and Component Lines
A gua (trigram/hexagram) is a system of symbols consisting of undivided lines (—) and divided lines (- -). The undivided line (—) is a yang line while the divided one (- -) a yin line. Three lines make a trigram, and there are eight such trigrams. When six lines are put together, they together make 64 hexagram combinations. Trigrams / hexagrams and component lines were created partly for the purpose of divination. Ancient Chinese people used yarrow stalks to make hexagrams, calculated the variations they suggested, and consulted them for the purpose of divination. Later on, people used trigrams / hexagrams and component lines symbolically to explain the changes and the laws regulating the changes that occurred in people and everything else, and why and how these changes took place.
DETAILED>>The benevolent person has a loving heart. Renzhe (仁者) refers to benevolent and virtuous people or people with loving hearts, who have tremendous courage, wisdom, perfect moral character, charm, and charisma, and who love and care about others. Confucianism holds ren (仁) as the highest moral value. The basic meaning of ren is loving others, and to love others, one should first show filial piety to one’s parents and respect one’s elder brothers, and then extend love and care to other family members, and eventually to everyone else in the world. Mencius （372？-289 BC） synthesized and upgraded this notion into a theory to be applied to the governance of a country. He proposed that a person of virtue should love and care about first his loved ones, then other people, and finally everything on earth. Confucianism believed that love could be extended to people in a certain order, but that benevolence has general value, which is both the foundation and the goal of building a harmonious and good-will society.
DETAILED>>A broad mind achieves greatness. Yourong (有容) means that one has the capacity to accommodate others. Da (大) refers to great courage and an important cause. Yourong is a moral standard, and more importantly, contains wisdom for survival. It is a conscious act of morality in pursuit of social harmony by managing and regulating relations between oneself and others on the basis of recognizing and respecting individual and social differences, without resorting to deliberate connivance or making unprincipled compromise. The term teaches people how to conduct themselves, particularly officials in exercising their administrative powers. That is, they should have a broad mind, open to different views and different things, like the sea accepting numerous rivers flowing into it. This is the way to cultivate great character and important achievements. Its meaning is similar to the term houde-zaiwu (厚德载物 have ample virtue and carry all things).
DETAILED>>Bravery determines the victorious outcome of a battle. As a trait, bravery refers mainly to the fighting spirit, the will to win, and fearless heroism. It is characteristically a necessary condition or a pre-requisite that decides the victorious outcome of a battle. Such a trait should not only be found in an army, but also in the general public because the latter provides the social support to wage a war. Only from a heroic population can adequate manpower, materials, money, and moral that the war needs be drawn. This term implies the notion of a general war.
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If a country has no
people harboring resentment against those in power, it is a country that can be
called a strong country. This is a Legalist definition of a strong state. The
Legalists were pragmatic, emphasizing farming and military fighting, a rich state
with a strong army. However, they did not at all measure the strength of states
by their hard power alone but also by their soft power. The essence of soft
power is the people feeling no hatred of those in power. The prerequisite of no
such hatred is justice, fairness and equality in the country and the result is
national unity. This term is the Legalist expression of the notion that “people are the foundation of the state.”
This saying by Confucius (551-479 BC) is recorded in The Analects. By this Confucius originally meant that talented and virtuous people in the upper class were “tools” for realizing the ideals of benevolence. Working for them and becoming friends with these people was an opportunity to realize the ideals of benevolence in the interest of the country and society. Later, this concept came to be used as a metaphor meaning that to do something well, one needs to make preparations and have good methods. The implied reasoning of this saying is as follows: objectives determine the choice of methods, and methods determine the realization of objectives.
DETAILED>>This
expression from Hanfeizi highlights how
a minute hazard is capable of developing into a devastating disaster. Everything
evolves from small to large or grows from few to many. If achieving a good
result is expected, then all kinds of hidden risks and potential dangers must
be detected and prevented as early as possible, no matter how negligible they may
be. The saying illustrates by analogy the importance of early prevention.
The term means that a military general who is leading his soldiers fighting enemy in a faraway place has the right not to heed the orders from the king. That saying is historically acknowledged as a basic principle for balancing powers between the king and the military commander, and between an order from the king and one from a general. The reasons are threefold. First, warfare requires unique skills, and the king may not have the expertise. Second, the king who is not on the frontline may not know the situation of the battle. Third, the spatial distance between the king and the general makes it impossible for a timely communication of information. In addition, the situation on the battlefield is constantly changing. Any hesitation or delay in decision-making might risk losing an opportunity for victory. The point of this principle is to give frontline commanders sufficient discretion for the sake of winning victory for the benefit of the country.
DETAILED>>A true gentleman is not like an implement that has a fixed form and its operation subject to its properties. This term originates from The Analects by Confucius（551-479 BC）. What Confucius meant was: first, an implement has its fixed form and properties. However, a gentleman's vision should not be limited by its form and properties; instead he should know all their basic functions and be a man of broad knowledge. Second, a gentleman should not stop at knowing only one type of skill for making implements. Instead he should explore all basic rules governing the operation of things, i.e., he should see beyond tangible things and master their intangible rules of operation. This perspective was accepted and further developed by later scholars. The concept still applies today. That is to say, one should not be satisfied in fulfilling his own duties only but should bear in mind the big picture, and better understand and abide by basic principles and universal laws.
DETAILED>>Public trust is the foundation underlying state power. A good ruler does not cheat the people. This does not mean that the state has no secrets from the public. Rather, it means the ruler should keep his promise, govern the state by law, maintain moral integrity, and have the trust of the people. He must not abuse his power, be deceitful and cheat the people. These acts can only cost him popular support. This notion resonates with the principle that “without people’s trust the state will not survive,” and it is an extension of the principle of putting the people first.
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(A great state should assume a low posture, just as great rivers absorb the waters from countless tributaries. This was an important concept on handling relations between states, propounded by the ancient Chinese philosopher Laozi. Its core idea is that of qianxia (谦下), the virtue of lowering oneself in dealing with others. In Laozi's view, the key to whether or not states can coexist peacefully lies in whether or not great ones can refrain from bullying small and weak ones. If they can lower themselves and treat small states with modesty, they will display the capacity to accommodate the entire world. This will cause small states to trust them and look up to them, just as all tributaries flow toward great rivers. If great states accept and accommodate lesser ones and small states respect and look up to great ones, harmony will ensue and all will achieve their goals. This is related to the contemporary concept of “a shared future for humanity.”)
This refers to the various schools of thought and their proponents during the period from the late Spring and Autumn Period through the early Han Dynasty.The Spring and Autumn Period witnessed an increasing disintegration of the old social order as well as of the values of the Zhou Dynasty. Faced with a social crisis , scholars of the times reflected deeply on problems, free from any restrictions. They advanced diverse theories on how to restore order and develop values. Such active theory-building and academic debating continued up to the early period of the Western Han Dynasty. Later generations referred to the large number of scholars and their works which had emerged at that time as A Hundred School of Thought (numerous philosophers and their works), and classified them into ten schools of thought: Confucianism, Mohism, Daoism, Logicians, Legalism, School of Yin-Yang, Agriculturalism, School of Diplomacy, Syncretism (or School of Miscellany, za jia), and School of Minor Talks (xiaoshuo jia). Among them, the first nine were more scholarly, and were therefore known as the "nine mainstream schools of the ten schools of thought." Due to the large number of proponents and their various theories, they are generally referred to as "A Hundred Schools of Thought."
Any major undertaking must start small from the basics. The expression comes from Laozi. Zuxia (足下) means the place where one is standing. Laozi used the metaphors of a giant tree, a high platform, a long journey to represent two different ideas. （1）Proper preventive measures must be taken before problems or troubles occur lest things become worse; （2）All undertakings must start from the very beginning, because success or failure often depends on a good start; an extension of this is that reaching distant ideals and aspirations depends on many practical steps along the way to attain the seemingly impossible goal.
DETAILED>>The Chinese phrase dedao (得道) or “obtaining Dao” here refers to having “a just cause.” Since ancient times Chinese people have had a high esteem for justice and have thought of justice as a decisive factor determining success or failure in war and other enterprises. Only by upholding justice can one achieve internal unity and popular support, which are essential for the success of a war or a cause； otherwise, popular support is lost and the ruler or leader becomes too isolated and helpless to succeed. This is a specific expression of the Chinese notion of “governance based on virtue” and the spirit of “civilization.”
DETAILED>>When the moon has a halo, a wind will arise; and when a column base turns wet, rain will come. Yun (晕) is a light circle around the sun or the moon, and chu (础) is a stone that serves as the foundation for a column in a building. This ancient proverb sheds light on the inevitable relationship between the “lunar halo”and “wind” and between the “wet column base” and “rain.” They speak to the wisdom of the ancient Chinese who learned to forecast weather through daily observations and repeated experiences. This proverb also contains the insightful realization that there exist necessary connections between certain things or phenomena. One thing or phenomenon signals the occurrence of another thing or phenomenon. Therefore, one can infer a certain thing or phenomenon from a given sign. Once people learn the internal rules governing changes, they can predict them based on their observation of the signs. As the Chinese sayings go, one is able to “tell the arrival of autumn by a falling leaf,” and “know the whole by its parts.”
DETAILED>>Even under pressure, a man of virtue maintains his moral values. Junzi or man of virtue originally referred to a ruler or a man of the aristocracy. Later, it came to mean any educated, upright person. Guqiong (固穷) means to adhere to one’s ideals and values even in times of difficulties and frustrations. The ancients believed that frustrated situations were ordeals for a man of virtue, in which he would not falter in his quest or touch the bottom line. This term summarizes the values of leadership, responsibility and integrity the political and cultural elites should retain in the face of difficulties and hardships.
DETAILED>>A man of virtue seeks to establish and practice dao rather than pursue his own livelihood. Men of virtue originally referred to males from the ruling class and aristocracy, but later referred generally to virtuous and talented individuals. dao here means fundamental principles and way of life; “livelihood” means basic resources for subsistence. As social elites, men of virtue should take upon themselves to establish and practice dao. That is not an excessive requirement for them. As men of virtue, they should not put daily necessities at priority. Instead, they should think about the expectations placed upon them as social elites to lead the common folks.
A master physician must have both superb medical skills and a desire to help the world. This is how Sun Simiao (581-682), a famous Tang Dynasty physician, described a doctor in his work Essential Formulas for Emergencies. A “master physician” is an extraordinary and great doctor who wins the respect of others. Jing(精) or “superb” refers to outstanding medical skills and a striving for perfection; cheng (诚) or “sincere” means being devoted to treating the sick and injured. This encompasses both the professional and ethical aspects of the spirit of Chinese medicine, and is an organic integration of the scientific and humanistic spirits. Like the concepts of “the caring heart of the physician” and “practicing medicine to help the world,” this concept has been held in high regard by doctors through the ages and remains relevant to this day.
DETAILED>>This term means a great physician held in high esteem by everyone, a good doctor for all the people. This is the ideal image of a physician as described by the famous Tang Dynasty physician Sun Simiao (581-682) in his Essential Formulas for Emergencies. “All the people” refers mainly to the general populace; a “master physician” is an extraordinary doctor who is great and commands respect. Such a doctor has three basic qualities or spirits: the first is equality, treating all patients with the same care regardless of wealth, social status, or kinship ties; the second is caring, treating all patients as kin, with the deepest compassion and empathy; the third is selflessness, focusing only on treating patients without regard for personal safety or personal interests. This is the most important component of the concept that “a master physician must have superb skill and sincerity,” and the highest manifestation of “the caring heart of a physician,” which is the humanist spirit of Chinese medicine.
Poetry should express a poet's grief while not violating the aesthetic rule of proper grace. First raised by renowned Southern Dynasties literary theorist Zhong Rong (?-518？), this is an important criterion used to judge the merit of poetry. Proceeding from an artistic perspective, Zhong deemed poems by Cao Zhi (192-232) as "having a mixed quality of grace and sorrow." He stressed that a poet should guard against excess emotion and obey the rule of proper grace. As for how to understand the notion of "graceful sorrow," there are two somewhat different interpretations. According to the first, the emphasis of that notion is on sorrow; namely, Cao's poems seek to voice suppressed grief, despite a restrained, proper style of expression. The second interpretation says that "grace" and "sorrow" here are of equal weight, insisting that Cao's poems are both aggrieved and graceful. No matter what, Zhong's theory enhanced Lu Ji's (261-303) idea that “poetry springs from emotions” to a new level and elaborated on the traditional theory that “feelings should be controlled by ritual propriety.
DETAILED>>A person who is skilled at warfare controls his opponents and is not controlled by them. The key point here is an emphasis on controlling the initiative in a battle. On the battlefield, a prerequisite for victory is the troop commander’s ability to determine the course of battle and steer it in the desired direction. Initiative in a battle is based on various objective conditions and subjective commands, and it constantly changes along with the changing balance of the opposing forces and the correctness of command concepts. During a battle, both sides try to take the initiative by controlling the time and place of engagement and the balance of forces. The main way to gain the initiative is to use flexible strategies and tactics to disrupt a situation which favors the opponent, to create weaknesses in him, to break his fighting spirit, and to thwart his plans. The concept of controlling the initiative is not only a manifestation of great military wisdom; it also offers insights for other areas of work and even for everyday behavior.
DETAILED>>A person skilled at warfare will achieve victory by using or creating a strategic position favorable to himself. A “strategic position” refers to the overall situation or state resulting from the deployment and actions of two opposing forces. A strategic position can be enormously powerful and is a critical factor which affects victory and defeat. A favorable strategic position is not ready-made; it is created by the logical allocation or deployment of forces, efforts to take the initiative in employing flexible strategies and tactics, maximizing one’s own strengths and minimizing the opponent’s strengths. Planning, creating, and using a strategic position that is advantageous for oneself and disadvantageous for the foe is an important responsibility of military commanders. This concept was later extended beyond the military sphere and became part of leadership wisdom for business and governmental affairs.
DETAILED>>This concept is tantamount to saying that everyone is equal before morality and righteousness. The term fufan (负贩) refers to a small trader who carries a toting pole to do business, and generally refers to people at the bottom of society. Whether a person commands respect or not should not be based on status, but on intrinsic character, i.e., morality and righteousness. Those whose words and deeds are moral and righteous command respect. Otherwise, they do not. This concept vividly demonstrates the spirit of the Chinese people who advocate morality and righteousness.
DETAILED>>Renren (仁人) means benevolent and moral people. Zhishi (志士) refers to one with lofty aspirations, resolve and integrity. This expression usually refers to a patriotic person who works for his people and country. Such individuals have a strong sense of right and wrong, and will sacrifice themselves willingly for a just cause. Their actions and spirit are much respected models for later generations.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a powerful appeal in writings surpassing that of ancient writers. Here qi(气)has a wide range of meanings, from an essay’s powerful appeal to a writer’s charisma or moral integrity. Wang(往)describes a channel through which such a vital force passes. Li(轹)literally means a wheel crushing something when rolling over it and metaphorically an overwhelming advantage over something. This is how Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties, in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, described the powerful appeal of Qu Yuan’s (340?-278? BC) works. Writers of later generations invariably sought to create a powerful appeal in their writings. The concept is also used as an important concept in literary criticism.
DETAILED>>Any country without righteousness will decline and fall, no matter how powerful it is. The principle of righteousness is the foundation or moral core for the founding and survival of a country. Deviating from this principle of righteousness and resorting to force or military might to rule will ultimately lead to a country being evil and ruinous. Such a country will not gain support from its people, nor will it be endorsed by other countries that uphold justice. Its force or military might will become useless eventually, and it will not last for long. The meaning of the term is similar to the concepts of “the kingly way” and that “a state should regard righteousness as a benefit.” It is another concept that reflects the spirit of Chinese civilization.
DETAILED>>A great ruler who conducts benevolent governance will enrich his people and unify the country. The implication of this term is that a great cause can succeed only when it is supported by the people. Therefore, a visionary leader must give top priority to the interests of all the people, not just the interests of some people, still less those of some individuals. This term echoes the thinking of “people being the foundation of the state” and “keeping wealth with the people.”
A ruler has the duty to keep people together. According to ancient Chinese philosopher Xunzi (313?-238 BC), people by nature want to live in community.People cannot survive if they go against this nature. Keeping people together so that they form a community or a society is the fundamental duty of a ruler. This term defines the relationship between a ruler and the people, and implies the way in which a society or a state should be structured.
DETAILED>>A ruler who aspires to the kingly way treats the people as his tian (天) or the highest authority. Broadly speaking, this means that a leader who wishes to accomplish great things must consider the people to be the most important. The term wangzhe (王者) originally referred to rulers who unified the country through benevolent governance, that is, rulers who had great achievements. The word tian represents the highest authority, an allusion to that which is of the greatest importance. The foundation of a country lies in the will of its people; the support or opposition of its people is the fundamental factor which determines whether a country or regime thrives or dies, whether it flourishes or is supplanted. Leaders who wish to achieve great things must attach the highest importance to the interests of the majority of people if it is to win their broad support. This concept is aligned with the concepts “the people are the foundation of the state” and “the will of the people is the foundation of the state.”
DETAILED>>This is a famous statement made by Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC)on how beauty is relative. Originally it meant there was no difference between a beauty and an ugly person, because they both came from and reflected Dao. The character 厉 (lai) meant 癞 (lai, covered in scabs) in ancient Chinese. Whether a person is beautiful or ugly is but a subjective perspective in the mind of the beholder. Besides, beauty can turn into ugliness, and vice versa. Zhuangzi, from the perspective of the origin of all things, stressed that beauty and ugliness are both in accord with Dao and are inherently the same. This idea has encouraged later literary critics to look at all things, including literary works, from the perspective that opposite things complement each other.
DETAILED>>This statement suggests that the beauty of literature and art lies in the unity and harmony of diverse elements. It became an important principle in ancient Chinese theories on literature and art, and facilitated the development of literature and art.
DETAILED>>A single remark can help a country thrive. As governance is a highly complex undertaking, it is impossible to make a country prosperous simply by following an idea expressed in a single remark. However, if a ruler thoroughly understands how difficult it is to run a country and exercises governance with prudence and dedication, it is quite possible for him to make his country prosper. In this sense, the effect of such concept, which can almost be likened as a single remark, will make a country flourish.
DETAILED>>A state should regard righteousness as a fundamental benefit. The debate over righteousness and benefits has been a constant theme of discussion in the Chinese history of philosophy, because benefits were often seen as personal profits that might be wrongfully gained. Taking righteousness as the most important kind of benefit was a basic concept upheld by ancient philosophers. Neither a person nor a state can survive without benefits. However, ancients emphasized the integration of righteousness and benefits. They believed that benefits could be materialized only when combined with righteousness, and the two should stay in harmony. One must not seek personal gain at the expense of righteousness. According to this concept, a government must not vie with commoners for benefits, nor should a state vie with another state for benefits for itself only. One must always strive for mutual assistance, shared interests, balance, and win-win outcomes.
DETAILED>>To have a strong army, the nation must have a prosperous population. In other words, a prosperous people are the basis and pre-condition of a strong military. Prosperity means the state treasury is full so military supplies are guaranteed. If people live a good life, they will have large families and the supply of manpower for the army is guaranteed. If society is well off, the population is content and will support national military policies and decisions. The expression shows the concretion between the population and the military in line with the concept that “people are the foundation of a state.”
DETAILED>>A state that has a strong army but acts without righteousness is bound to be destructive. Since ancient times, all rulers with high ideals have pursued a wealthy state and a strong army. However, there is a more important principle than this, i.e., the principle of righteousness which is a supreme ethical pursuit of the Chinese nation that is above all material interests. A strong army that practices no righteousness is bound to bring harm.
DETAILED>>Here, jing (静) means being tranquil and focused, whereas wang (王) means “exuberant.” Together, they describe a tranquil state of mind as being a source of inspiration. This concept is used in ancient times to describe the metal state during the process of literary creation. First proposed by Jiaoran, a Tang Dynasty poet-monk (720-796?), it sketches a highly creative state of mind that enables a poet to bring out his best. The term has much in common with the Daoist ideas of “pure state of the mind” or “forgetting the difference and opposition between self and the universe,” as well as the tranquil and creative state of the mind described by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties, which values “quiet emptiness of the mind” in conceiving a piece of writing.
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This is an important proposition made by the School of Names. GongsunLongzi(320?-250BC) discussed this thesis in great detail. In his view, “horse” is a name of the physical body of a horse, whereas “white” is the name for white color. “White horse” refers both to “horse” and “white” and therefore is not the same thing as that which is referred to as “horse.” The proposition that “a white horse is not a horse” is meant to point out that the name “horse” can't accurately refer to the particular characteristics of white, brown and black horses. More careful differentiation is necessary in order to indicate an object precisely.
Abolishing punishment with punishment is a concrete manifestation of the Legalist school’s “rule by law.” Seemingly the same as the Confucian notion that punishment is meted out for the purpose of eliminating punishment, it is in fact quite different. Confucians esteemed rites, wanting to get rid of punishments by means of virtue, while Legalists valued punishments, applying severe penalties to inflict fear in the hearts of the common people so that they would not dare commit crimes. Thus there would be no need for punishment. From the point of view of achieving the ideal of “great order under heaven,” Legalist “abolition of punishment” is very close to Confucian “elimination of punishment” but lacks the human concern of Confucianism.
This concept is about achieving a rhythmic balance between speech and emotion to produce a cadence of speech in poems, which is advocated by Chen Zi'ang (659-700), an early Tang Dynasty scholar. It has multiple meanings. It refers to the author’s thoughts and emotions rising and falling with the tempo of the poem. It also means the poet’s intention to create an aesthetic effect through the rising and falling of the voice and emotional rhythm. The term also refers to the meter of the poem and the poet’s own emotional rhythm which together give the reader the feeling of rising and falling. The “cadence of speech” means building up energy and generating tension by pausing and blocking, so to make the sound and rhythm of the work more resonant and powerful, the tempo more distinct and exciting, and thus achieve the overall robust style of poetry.
This term refers to a person acting courageously to do what is righteous. This fine tradition hailed by the Chinese nation since ancient times establishes that a man should be committed to upholding justice and shouldering social responsibility. Today, such acts are protected by law. Some administrative regulations provide that “acting bravely for a just cause” refers to an action of a citizen who fights to stop any on-site criminal acts or acts in an emergency in order to protect state property, public interests, people or their property from danger disregarding his personal safety. Whether in ancient days or today, acting bravely for justice is always a commendable ethical deed and also an important indicator of social progress.
DETAILED>>The term means acting on one’s own free will without being subject to external restrictions. In ancient China, both Confucians and Daoists longed for freedom both of the mind and in their lives. In modern times, this term has become the Chinese word for “liberty” and “freedom.” As a technical term, it has two meanings. One is citizens’ statutory and law-protected rights not to be interfered in their will and actions, such as freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom of religious belief. The other, philosophically, refers to freedom of people’s understanding of necessity and their transformation of the objective world. Based on a profound understanding of the principles governing the nature and society and aiming to ensure individuals to achieve well-rounded development, freedom is considered one of the core values conducive to a good society.
DETAILED>>The notion of acting in accordance with human nature first appears in The Doctrine of the Mean, a section of The Book of Rites. According to this text, all humans possess an innate virtuous quality that originates from heaven. People should follow and give full play to this heavenly bestowed virtue and realize it in their words and deeds. Behavior in keeping with this inherent nature constitutes a person’s virtuous quality. Later scholars regarded this virtuous nature as the heavenly law manifested in human nature. Acting in accordance with human nature was therefore seen as following the heavenly law.
DETAILED>>Daoist scholars divided governance by rulers into two categories: action and non-action. Here action generally means that rulers impose their will on others or the world with no respect for the intrinsic nature of things or without following such nature. This will undermine the natural state, leading to the breakdown of order. Daoist scholars therefore advocated non-action to overcome the defect of action. Scholars of Confucianism and other schools of thought, however, favored action taken by rulers as necessary. The term also refers to action a person takes to achieve success.
DETAILED>>Addictive music allures and entraps people with its decadent tones. It roughly equates to “the music of the states of Zheng and Wei.”Confucianism believed that the music of Zheng, Wei, and some other states in the Spring and Autumn Period was ornate and frivolous, harmful to the moral development of society. So it should be rejected as “addictive music.” Music style changes along with the times. Even during the Spring and Autumn Period, both ancient music and new music were played. Ancient music was elegant, handed down from earlier times, and extolled by Confucian scholars. New music was popular with contemporaries or developed by later generations. Noble and graceful, ancient music could rectify people’s minds and make them conform to Confucian moral norms. Therefore, ancient music was called “music conforming to virtue.” New music, by contrast, disturbed people’s minds and made them wallow in sensual pleasures, corroding their minds and will. It was thus referred to as “addictive music.” Confucianism praised music conforming to virtue and opposed addictive music.
DETAILED>>This term shows that poetry should indirectly and mildly advise a ruler against wrongdoing. The critic should resort mainly to tactful and sensitive wording, trying not to appear blunt or offensive when admonishing the ruler. The term first appeared in the “Introductions to Mao’s Version of The Book of Songs”; it was created by Confucian scholars in summarizing the various means of expression in The Book of Songs. Later, it became a criterion for measuring all works of art and literature. The core message is that, while poetry can be used to criticize or satirize a ruler and also to show discontent with social reality, a mild or indirect way should be employed, namely analogy, association, simile, and metaphor. This view is a manifestation of Confucian political ethics in the field of literary criticism.
DETAILED>>The concept of advaya instructs one to avoid the two extremes, to transcend all distinctions, and to treat all phenomena equally. A common man often understands the world in dichotomy, creating a number of opposites such as permanence versus impermanence and possession versus dispossession. Buddhists believe that dichotomy paints the picture of a world full of fantasies and distinctions, failing to truthfully reflect the reality. Such fantasies and distinctions are automatic in any understanding based on verbal concepts. Therefore, one shall avoid the two extremes and the misleading of worldly names and words. In this way can one transcend the distinctions perceived by a common man and achieve the ultimate wisdom of equality and emptiness.
DETAILED>>From ancient times, Chinese people have held this dialectical view on disasters: though it is calamitous for a country to be plagued by frequent ills or facing other disasters, its people are likely to unite as one and overcome adversities and break new ground; this enables them to create a more prosperous and stronger nation and a happier life. The expression represents the fortitude and solidarity of the Chinese people in times of trial and tribulation. It also illustrates their enterprise and will to triumph over trouble, turn crises into opportunities, and take initiative in the making of history.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a state where the scene described in a literary or artistic work reflects the sense and sensibility intended. Jing (境) originally meant perimeter or boundary. With the introduction of Buddhism into China during the late Han, Wei and Jin dynasties, the idea gained popularity that the physical world was but an illusion, and that only the mind was real in existence. So jing came to be seen as a realm that could be attained by having sensibilities of the mind. As a literary and artistic term, jing has several meanings. The term yijing (意境) was originally put forward by renowned Tang poet Wang Changling (?- 756 ?). It describes an intense aesthetic experience in which one’s perception of an object reaches a realm of perfect union with the implication denoted by the object. Aesthetic appreciation in the mind is characterized by “projecting meaning into a scene” and “blending sentiment with scenery.” In contrast with the term yixiang (意象 image), yijing fully reveals the implication and the heightened aesthetic sense that an artistic work is intended to deliver. The concept is extended to include other notions such as sentiment and scene, actual and implied meanings, or mind and object. It also raises literary and artistic works to a new realm of aesthetic appreciation. After evolving through several dynasties, this concept developed into an important criterion to judge the quality of a literary or artistic work, representing an accomplishment drawing on classical writings through ages. It has also become a hallmark for all outstanding literary and artistic works. The term also represents a perfect union between foreign thoughts and culture and those typically Chinese.
The aesthetic conception evoked by a poem or prose transcends what a physical object denotes, and a reader needs to perceive and appreciate the beauty of such aesthetic conception. Jing (境) here refers to an aesthetic conception created by a poem or prose, while xiang (象) refers to the image of a concrete object portrayed in such writing. Composed of words, a poem describes individual objects through which it evokes a coherent poetic conception beyond the physical appearance of such objects. This proposition was first put forward by poet Liu Yuxi （772-842）of the Tang Dynasty to express his understanding of poetry. He pointed out that words and images were concrete while aesthetic conceptions were abstract and subtle and therefore hard to describe. Liu’s proposition, namely, aesthetic conception transcending concrete objects described, marked an important stage in the development of the theory of aesthetic conception in classical Chinese poetry.
DETAILED>>This term refers to love for one’s kin and particularly for one’s parents. It is a natural affection, and it also refers to the way in which such feeling is expressed. Confucianism holds that such a love should also be extended to others so that it will foster public virtue. Excessive affection for one’s kin, however, can lead to favoritism in one’s conduct. So righteousness is proposed by Confucianism as a means to curb excessive love for one’s kin.
DETAILED>>While this literally means "lines employed in painting," it is used to refer to the fundamental rules guiding the art of painting and, furthermore, to the universal laws of the formation and development of everything in the universe. This notion was first put forward by the Qing-dynasty painter Shi Tao（1641-1718？）, though his ideas were controversial among contemporary scholars and artists. Shi, drawing inspiration from Daoist philosophy and Chan theory, and perhaps from Fuxi's use of a single line to symbolize yin and yang as a unitary whole in creating the eight trigrams (eight combinations of three whole or broken lines formerly used in divination), held that all things in the universe derive from a single oneness. All tangible things under a painter's brush, likewise, forever have that oneness at their core. For him, oneness means naught. Painting is thus a process of generating tangible objects from nothing. This is also the ultimate dao -- a combination of the way of painting with that of all things in the universe. As well, oneness is a set of broadly applicable rules present throughout the process of painting. Each stroke or line reflects these rules. The oneness in painting theory encompasses multiple relationships between oneness on the one hand, and the dao, nothingness, tangibility, and multiplicity on the other. It is rich in philosophical implication and artistic significance. This term later became an important part of traditional Chinese aesthetic thought and painting theory.
DETAILED>>This idea was first put forward by Zhang Zai （1020-1077）of the Northern Song Dynasty, who held that people and things are all created by the vital force of heaven and earth, and thus are similar in nature. He advocated love for all people and things in the world, and his view transcended the old anthropocentric viewpoint and aimed to reach harmony between oneself and other human beings as well as between oneself and other creatures and things. It is the same as the idea that a true gentleman has ample virtue and cares for all things. This notion is an important part of the School of Principle of the Song and Ming dynasties.
DETAILED>>This saying means that all the people in the world are as close as brothers. The Four Seas are the East, West, South, and North seas. The ancient Chinese believed that heaven was round and the earth was square, with China in the middle of the earth, which was surrounded on all four sides by the Four Seas. “Within the Four Seas” refers to the world inhabited by humans, which was also called “all under heaven,” referring to the whole country or the whole world. This saying shows the inclusive and broad mind of the Chinese and their compassion, love and friendship towards other human beings.
DETAILED>>Humans and all things are one. The ancients believed that humans and all things were produced by heaven and earth, and that despite belonging to different categories, they ultimately followed the same fundamental principle and had a commonality or consistency, just like the parts of a person’s body; humans must acknowledge this so they won’t lose their pre-eminence over all things. In this way, Confucian scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties reinterpreted the concept of “benevolence,” and also this is how the idea of eco-civilization is being explored today. This idea, like the concept that “all people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions,” transcends the limitations of human-oriented thinking and achieves a high degree of unity and harmony between our own selves and other human beings as well as between our own selves and everything else.
DETAILED>>All undertakings have a beginning, but few people are able to see things through to the end. Mi (靡) means “nothing, none,” and chu (初) means “beginning.” Xian (鲜) means “few,” and ke (克)means “be able, can.” The saying comes from The Book of Songs, and was a criticism of the degenerate and immoral King Li of Zhou whose constantly changing decrees brought misery to his people. The story has both practical and philosophical implications. Starting off with a flourish is not difficult, whether in personal behavior, doing business, being an official or governing a country, it’s persevering to the end that is hardest. This is an admonition to us to not keep changing our minds, to avoid making bold early promises and then failing to live up to them. We must not give up in the middle, but should persevere so that things not only begin well but also end well.
DETAILED>>All the people under heaven are as close as one family. “All under heaven” here refers to all the people both in a country and in the whole world. True love transcends blood ties and territorial boundary. This term is akin to such expressions as “universal love” and “all are brothers within the four seas.” True love also transcends humankind and extends to everything in the world, as expressed in such phrases as “one should be kind to people and love things” and “you should consider all people as your kin, and all things as your own kind.” The term demonstrates the Chinese vision of caring and compassion for all.
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All under heaven belongs to all the people in the world; a country belongs to all the people in the country. “All under heaven” can here be understood as the country or highest sovereign power of the country. The ancients regarded all under heaven as belonging neither to a single person nor to a single family but to all the people. Whoever acted according to morality and justice and was good to the people of all under heaven, such a person was qualified to possess and rule all under heaven. This implies a concept of human rights bestowed by heaven and governance by virtue. In a modern context, this can be understood in the following way: the world belongs to all the people of the world – every country and every person have the right to take part in government.
Although the thinkers of various schools were out of tune with their times, their aspirations were expressed in their writings and have been constantly developed with the heritage of their thoughts. This idea from the chapter “Thinkers of Various Schools” of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons means that in addition to the sages, thinkers of other schools also comprehended the fundamental laws of the universe and people’s lives. Although their foresight might not have been understood, accepted, or applied in practice by their contemporaries, people of later generations who comprehended, interpreted, and developed their thoughts would finally help to realize their aspirations. With this idea, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), the Southern Dynasties author of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, eulogizes the necessity of writing for conveying ideas and culture. He argues against the eager pursuit of material benefits, holding that one ought to endure being ideologically isolated from the times, refrain from “hastening to claim credit,” and be filled with a sacred sense of mission. The author interprets the idea that “indignation spurs one to write great works”by Sima Qian (145 or 135? -? BC), in a positive and optimistic manner, hence a major boost to the faith of literati and intellectuals in further dedication to the cause of writing.
DETAILED>>This quotation is from the chapter “Essay of Mourning and Essay of Memory”of the book The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), author during the Southern Dynasties, holds that if an author, with no real ache in heart, exaggerates and sensationalizes grief and sorrow in writing, it is impossible for the lament to touch the reader’s heart. Only when a lament is based on one’s own heartfelt sorrow or on real empathy forthe loss of others in the case he writes on behalf of someone can it convey emotional power. Writers should not abuse rhetoric and creative skills in blind pursuit of a moving effect. Nor should they deviate from the elegiac purpose and the funereal tone of laments to seek rhetorical showiness and formal beauty. With this quotation, Liu Xie further interprets the opposing ideas of “producing emotions for a piece of writing” and “producing a piece of writing for emotional effect.”
DETAILED>>An army in danger and filled with indignation will certainly be victorious. Ai (哀) here means both pain and anger. These emotions can unite an army and give it extraordinary courage which is very often the deciding factor in battle. In the same way, the side that fights with passion to resist wrongdoing and aggression is filled with justified indignation. Any army fighting a just war is brave and invincible. This concept put emphasis on courage and justice.
DETAILED>>This phrase describes a breadth of mind that is broad and open as a deep and expansive mountain valley. Metaphorically, it refers to a person who is modest, generous, and tolerant, good at listening to other people’s opinions and taking them into consideration, which is a desirable characteristic deemed typical in eminent people and leaders. People with such a quality can accommodate various opinions, including criticism and objections. In so doing, they can make timely correction of their mistakes or amend erroneous policies, thereby attracting more people to join and support them. This term is similar in meaning to other concepts such as “having ample virtue and carrying all things” and “a broad mind achieves greatness.”
DETAILED>>This refers to an independent mind that refuses to be restrained. The concept was proposed by the Ming-dynasty philosopher Wang Yangming (1472-1529), who devoted his entire life to “becoming a sage first and foremost.” Politically, he looked down on those in power and high position. Intellectually, he challenged the School of Neo-Confucianism advocated by Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi. The “unrestrained mind” he proposed had at its core a free and independent spirit, courage of forging ahead, and unconventional thinking. As an aspiration in life, it had a profound influence on many future intellectuals and scholars, igniting trends about individual emancipation in the late Ming Dynasty.
DETAILED>>Ancestral temples were built for the spirits of people's deceased ancestors. Tablets bearing the names of the
ancestors were housed in the temples for worship and sacrificial purposes. In the
ancient Chinese temple system, ancestral temples mainly referred to the special
temples where kings, princes and others offered sacrifices to their ancestors.
According to rules of the Zhou Dynasty, a sovereign ruler could have seven temples, a
prince could build five, a minister three, a shi (士 a person at the social
stratum between the aristocracy and the common people) could only have one. A common person was not
allowed to have any temple. If a state or dynasty was defeated and no longer in existence, its ancestral
temples would often be destroyed. Therefore, just like terms such as “rivers and mountains,” or “state power,” “ancestral temples”
was often used as a term to refer to the royal
family, the court or state power. Ancestral temples were a product of the
continuation of ancestral worship and a manifestation of the principle that
family and state share the same structure.
Appoint a person to office or position based solely on merit or outstanding ability. In other words, the criteria for giving authority to a person do not involve any kind of personal relationship. Wei (唯) means “solely”, and xian (贤) means a combination of ability and moral rectitude, an ideal much sought after by the ancients. Those with these qualities are able to observe and uphold social norms and be leaders of social progress. To appoint such wise and capable people to positions of power is the basis and guarantee of good governance. Such qualities, much revered in ancient times, continue to be the basic standards for selecting, training, managing and appointing public officials today.
DETAILED>>This term refers to venerable doctors with good skills and by extension the entire profession of Chinese medicine. According to Biographies of Deities and Immortals by Ge Hong (281?–341), the famous doctor Dong Feng of the Three Kingdoms period lived on Mount Lu where he treated patients free of charge. All he asked from those who recovered from a serious illness was to plant five apricot trees and those who recovered from a minor ailment to plant one such tree. After some years, a lush wood of apricot trees appeared. He traded apricots for grain which he saved up to help the poor and needy. Later, people used apricot trees to refer to virtuous doctors with good skills, and in modern times, some medical organizations and journals in China used the designation “apricot trees” as their names. This term has become a synonym for Chinese medicine.
DETAILED>>First formulated by Wu Qi (440?-381 BC), a far-famed statesman and military strategist of the Warring States Period, the concept refers to either armed forces fighting for justice or morally justified wars. In this context, yi (义) specifically means “forbidding violence and eliminating chaos,” denoting acts generally regarded as righteous. As an act of extreme violence itself, a war should only be waged for a good reason and not as a means to bully the weak or assault the few. It should least of all be used out of such emotional factors as greed and anger. The Chinese have advocated the just and judicious use of military force since ancient times, with the firm conviction that justice is invincible. This is a manifestation of the Chinese humanistic spirit.
DETAILED>>Here, bi (比) means to arrange and combine something in a certain way, and yue(乐) means to express through music. As a noun in its broad sense, yue refers to both the arrangement of sounds and the dance that accompanies the music. When a person experiences changes of feeling, triggered by external encounter, he will naturally make a variety of sounds. Simple and invariable, these sounds can be converted into tonic notes, or yin (音), such as gong (宫, corresponding roughly to 1 in the numbered musical notation), shang (商, corresponding to 2 ), jue (角, corresponding to 3 ), zhi (徵, corresponding to 5 ), and yu (羽, corresponding to 6 ), because of their differences in pitch, length, and speed. These notes are thus arranged and combined into a piece of music, or yue in a certain way. This quotation is an ancient Chinese theory on the origin of music.
DETAILED>>This term means to reach the same goal through different routes. Coming from The Book of Changes, the term has two meanings: First, different schools of thought and different people have different understandings of social order and values, and the ways of governance they advocate also vary, but their goals are the same – stability and prosperity of society. Second, though things under heaven manifest themselves in different ways, they all belong or rely on a common ontological entity.
DETAILED>>Originally, the term referred to six forms of classical arts and various crafts, but it later extended to include artistic creation and aesthetic appreciation. The six forms of arts as defined by Confucianism are rituals, music, archery, charioteering , writing and mathematics. These constituted the basic requirements for cultivating a man of virtue. These six arts also included what later generations deemed as arts. Sometimes, the term also meant the six classics, namely, The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, The Book of Music, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. Zhuangzi（369？-286 BC）, on his part, emphasized the connection between crafts and arts, regarding them as physical and mental creative activities that help one gain insight into dao. The various ideas about arts put forward by Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist scholars defined the nature and method of Chinese arts, which seek unity between artwork and real life, fusion of senses and experiences, and integration of techniques and personality, with achieving artistic conception as the ultimate aim. Since the introduction of Western art theories in modern China, arts have become an independent discipline covering all types of arts created with skill and innovation. The concept of arts today incorporate both traditional Chinese and contemporary Western notions of arts.
This concept originates from The Analects. While the word qiao (巧) or “artful”itself typically denotes cleverness or skill, and ling (令) or “pleasing” generally signifies virtue or goodness, both adopt negative connotations in the context of the phrase “artful words and a pleasing demeanor.” The concept refers to the intentional use of flattering or deceptive language and expressions to manipulate or mislead others. Confucius (551-479 BC) explicitly stated that treating others with “artful words and a pleasing demeanor” contradicts the principles of benevolence and virtue.
DETAILED>>This refers to the momentum, charm, and vitality in paintings as well as in calligraphic and literary works which together create artistic appeals. The term was first used to refer only to painting, meaning that the proper use of ink and the painting brush could vividly present natural landscape, make the painting flow with vitality, and enable viewers to appreciate its underlying allure. Later, the term was extended to cover poetry, essay, calligraphy and other literary creations. Artistic appeal, which is similar in meaning to such terms as artistic charm and literary charm, is an aesthetic appreciation gained through experiences and feelings. Expressed in a work of art, artistic appeal reflects an author’s unique approach to art and inspiration, something that he is born with rather than acquired.
DETAILED>>This term is an example of Confucian literary thinking. Confucian scholars believed that music gave expression to people’s thinking and emotions, so a country’s music reflected whether government integrity was upheld, whether people enjoyed prosperity, and whether the social atmosphere was amiable and sincere. According to Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, during his diplomatic mission to the State of Lu in the Spring and Autumn Period , Prince Jizha of the State of Wu learned about the governance of various vassal states and regions at the time by listening to their music performed by the people of Lu. This should be the origin of the term “assessing governance by listening to music.” This concept first emerged in the Qin and Han dynasties, which removed the boundary between art and government and made artistic aesthetics a part of public life. It gave expression to Confucian literary thinking which was based on governance and ethics and added a political and ethical dimension to the ancient Chinese literary and art theory.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a comprehensive assessment of a scholar's abilities and literary talent. It was first put forward by Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties in his literary critique The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. Here cheng (程) means to assess; qi (器) refers to a person's moral conduct, ability to govern and literary talent. In Liu's view, some scholars since the Han and Wei dynasties had been scorned for their poor moral conduct or their inability to handle political or military affairs. This also harmed their literary reputation. Thus, he advised scholar-officials to not only possess writing skills but also excel morally and perform meritorious deeds for their country. He believed that a virtuous person would embrace noble ideals, be knowledgeable and insightful, be versatile, and fulfill worthy goals. He stressed the need to judge a scholar-official by his statements and moral character and his performance of meritorious service.
DETAILED>>This term means feeling attached to the native land and reluctant to move to another place. This was a widespread way of thinking and sentiment among the common people in a traditional agricultural society. In essence, it is because they depended on the land to make a living, since the land served as their basic resource for production and livelihood. Also, they were loath to leave the burial place of their ancestors as well as their family and relations. In the Chinese clan system, ancestor worship was a basic belief and living together with one’s clan was the social norm. People felt it upsetting and inconvenient to leave the environment and society in which they grew up. This concept and sentiment may seem passive and conservative, but it reflects the Chinese people’s simple love for their homeland, relatives, and a peaceful life.
DETAILED>>This means to attack when the enemy is unprepared and take action when the enemy least expects it. It is a key principle of warfare advocated by Sunzi, an ancient Chinese military strategist. The essence is to launch a surprise attack and inflict heavy losses on the troops, weapons and morale of the adversary, so as to gain the initiative and secure victory. This has remained an important principle of warfare even today.
DETAILED>>Humans must first of all eat to live. Taste is secondary. Mozi (468?-376 BC) opposed extravagance in favor of frugality and utility. He argued that an extravagant way of life was wasteful of labor and raw materials. He prioritized eating one’s fill and dressing warmly over aesthetic demands. It was not that he abhorred beauty or was unable to appreciate it. Rather, he adopted functionality and usefulness as his criteria for judging beauty, and believed that whatever was impractical or of only formal elegance had no true beauty. Whereas Confucian philosophers valued both form and content, arguing that external features and inner substance were equally important, Mozi placed substance well above form, which also illustrates the relationship between aesthetics and practicality.
DETAILED>>This term means to educate and teach according to people’s caliber and their interests. Cai (材) refers to factors such as people’s caliber and interests, and their level of education. This is an educational and pedagogical principle first practiced by Confucius (551-479 BC), and later summarized and established by others. We may say that the core concepts of this principle are shuaixing (率性 acting in accordance with human nature) as described in The Book of Rites, and jinxing (尽性 making full use of human nature) as described in The Book of Changes. It has been widely accepted to this day, and its gist is that in education and pedagogy, the choice of subject matter, methods and goals must vary according to the individual characteristics of the audience if they are to achieve better outcomes. This principle has been corroborated through psychology and pedagogy, and has become a fundamental concept in the modern science of education.
This concept refers to the outcomes of events that have different impacts on individuals, where positive outcomes are considered auspicious and negative outcomes are regarded as inauspicious. This classification is also applied to things that may lead to good or harmful results, or things that are good or harmful in nature. For example, weddings are seen as auspicious ceremonies, while funerals are viewed as inauspicious ceremonies. People generally strive for auspiciousness and try to avoid inauspiciousness. Consequently, they continuously explore the factors that contribute to these states and have developed different interpretations.
DETAILED>>This term means that a writer should not fall into old patterns when writing a drama. He should not only avoid stereotypes of previous works but also resist attempts to do so in his own creations. The term was proposed by late Ming to early Qing drama theorist Li Yu (1611-1680) in his Occasional Notes with Leisure Motions. In his view, dramatic creations should be original in both content and wording, and previous works should not be blindly followed. Only such works deserve to be called legendary stories. This call to avoid stereotypes was made to encourage creativity and variety in artistic pursuit to delight the audience.
DETAILED>>The expression is proposed by the ancient military thinker Sunzi in The Art of War, and is one of his principles of conducting warfare. Sunzi believed that a commander should, on the basis of an accurate assessment of one’s own and the enemy’s force deployment, attack the weak front in the enemy’s deployment with superior force. This would ensure victory. This tactic is later also used by people to deal with social activities in which there is competition.
DETAILED>>This term was first used by the late Ming and early Qing drama theorist Li Yu (1611-1680) in his Occasional Notes with Leisure Motions. It means that in dramatic creation, one should maintain a good balance between fiction and non-fiction in characterization and plot development. According to Li, material for dramatic creation could be ancient or current, could be based on what one heard from others or what actually happened. A piece of dramatic creation was just like a fable. As long as it had a good message to convey, whether its plot was real or not did not matter much. Nonetheless, a writer of legendary drama should strike a balance between reality and fiction, suiting characterization and plot development to people’s natural way of thinking. The effort to balance fiction and reality acknowledges the need of artistic creation, taking reason and human feelings as the criterion judging artistic reality; and it highlights the difference between artistic reality and mundane reality. This view represents a proper understanding of laws governing literary creation.
Balanced harmony is an ideal state of human mind. When people’s emotions such as joy, anger, sorrow, and happiness are expressed in an unbiased way in keeping with the rites, a state of mind featuring balanced harmony is achieved. If a ruler can reach such a state of mind and exercise governance accordingly, everything in heaven and earth will be in its proper place, be orderly and in harmony with each other. This will deliver common prosperity and development for all.
DETAILED>>In The Book of Songs, the content is divided into three categories according to style and tune: feng (ballad), ya (court hymn), and song (eulogy). Ballads are music from different regions, mostly folk songs. Court hymns, divided into daya (major hymn) and xiaoya (minor hymn), are songs sung at court banquets or grand ceremonies. They are mostly the works by lettered noblemen. Eulogies are ritual or sacrificial dance music and songs, most of which praise the achievements of ancestors. Court hymns and eulogies are highbrow songs while ballads are lowbrow ones. Therefore, ballads, court hymns, and eulogies not only refer to the styles of The Book of Songs but also indicate highbrow songs. Later on fengya (风雅) generally referred to anything elegant.
DETAILED>>This term refers to works of art which are banal in content and jumbled in form. Here yin (音) stands for words from the heart in general and poetic creation in particular. Ti (体) refers to the choice of genre or style on the basis of content. Zhong Rong (?-518?) used this concept to criticize some young poets of his time who, lacking true feelings and personal experience, could only produce works ill-organized in content and form, devoid of any clear theme or core emotion. In his opinion, they wrote poetry only out of love or because they admired poets for their refinement. Zhong’s contemporary Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) proposed six principles for emulating the creation of Confucian classics, in the chapter “Regarding Classics as Ultimate Sources” in his The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. First, writing should be an outcome of deep feelings, not of guile. Second, it should be stylistically innovative without causing confusion. Third, it should truthfully record people and things rather than distort them. Fourth, it should abandon sophistry in favor of fair reasoning. Fifth, it should be neatly structured, not too wide-ranging. Sixth, it should be charming without any hint of decadence.
DETAILED>>This was an important social function in ancient China. On the basis of their purpose, such banquets can generally be divided into two kinds: one was to entertain virtuous people in the locality in a display of respect for them; the other was hosted by local officials to entertain the elders to show respect and care for them. Such banquets were important in maintaining moral order in rural communities.
DETAILED>>This term referred originally to the music used by emperors, dukes and princes when they held rituals and feasts. Since the Sui and Tang dynasties, it had come to refer to various kinds of popular music played during feasting and entertainment at court. The term “banquet music” was first seen in The Rites of Zhou, at which time such music generally drew on the music of the common folk and neighboring ethnic minority groups, and comprised both songs and dances. It can be said that outside influence is a characteristic of banquet music from the beginning. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, when there was a great influx of foreign music into China, the so-called Ten Types of Music for feasting and entertainment at court were identified and categorized, among which banquet music was placed at the top of the list. Later generations would refer to the music and dance of Sui and Tang comprising elements from China and abroad, singing and dancing, refined and popular, as banquet music. The folk music and dance of the Tang Dynasty were all categorized as banquet music. Such music was also sometimes used in large ceremonial activities such as ancestral rituals and royal meetings. Banquet music lasted through the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, and even today some folk music and traditional opera tunes can still be found to have elements of the banquet music of the Sui and Tang dynasties.
DETAILED>>Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), a literary critic of the Southern Dynasties, discussed the characteristics of sages’ writings in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. He stated that sages, on the basis of understanding and exploring the natural ways of heaven and earth, skillfully balanced writing styles such as concealing and highlighting, and used the right amount of words and expressions in their classics, thus making such writings elegant in form and rich in content. Therefore, these classics were regarded as models of writings. This view of Liu’s is also the basic principle underlying ancient Chinese literary theory. In later literary critique, the Confucian classics were followed as the standard of good writing for both poetry and prose.
DETAILED>>One should be discreet at the beginning and all the way through to finish. Many factors determine success or failure. Generally speaking, discreetness and perseverance are the sure way to success, while negligence and laxity invariably lead to failure. When approaching a successful conclusion in an undertaking, people tend to lose drive and things may fall apart at the last minute. Therefore, we must act with discreetness, a concept that has its root in earnestness. Earnestness means handling things with great care.
DETAILED>>Be as loyal as one can be and serve one’s own country. The term “be loyal and serve the country” first appeared in The History of Zhou of the Northern Dynasties and The History of the Northern Dynasties compiled during the early Tang. This phrase is also associated to the famous general in the war of resistance against the northern Jin invasion, Yue Fei (1103-1142) of the Southern Song Dynasty. In The History of the Song Dynasty, compiled during the Yuan Dynasty, there is a mention that Yue Fei had the four characters jin zhong bao guo (尽忠报国) tattooed on his back. However, it is not specified as to who tattooed them. Towards the early Qing period, there were talks that it was Yue Fei’s mother who tattooed them, and it is followed by the story of Yue Fei’s commitment and obeisance to his mother’s command to be loyal to his outmost and render service to his own country unto death. It has the connotation of Confucian ideals of loyalty and filial piety integrated into one, and to this day, it is used by the Chinese as a typical expression for patriotism.
DETAILED>>This expression means forming ties among people based on a common just cause and not forming ties for selfish purposes.Bi (比), meaning to be “close,” implies affinity or attachment. Here it describes a group brought together by a common just cause.Dang (党), referring to“cliquish,”implies bias and factionalism. Here it describes a group brought together by personal ties and selfish interests. The former acts out of selflessness and is constructive which is something that has been praised by upright men through the ages; the latter uses power for selfish gain, which has been castigated by upright men through the ages.
This term means to gladly and willingly follow someone by virtue of their moral character and conduct. Mencius （372？-289 BC）believed that the proper way to convince others was not by forcing them to do something, but by demonstrating a high level of self-cultivation and morality. A person with high ethical standards will convince others, out of appreciation and regard, to accept his teachings or political ideas.
DETAILED>>When leading a poor life, one should still stick to moral principles. Confucius (551-479 BC) and Confucian scholars believe that it is not for fame and wealth that one should observe moral principles. Rather, such observance comes from one’s heart and represents his lifetime pursuit. So those who are guided by high moral standards will never seek wealth and fame at the expense of justice, and they can live up to such standards even when they live in poverty.
DETAILED>>Literally, the term means “this culture.” It encompasses the cultural and ethical progress created by rites, music, education, codes, and systems as well as a social order which is hierarchical but harmonious. Later, this term came to refer to the literati and extended to mean being cultured and refined.
DETAILED>>See natural things or landscapes and feel a certain emotion – this can happen in two kinds of situations: one when seeking to relieve emotions by fixing one’s gaze on an object, or looking for objective counterparts for one’s existing emotions; the other when passively seeing things which arouse one’s emotions. In the second sense it is akin to the concept “draw inspiration from external objects,” where natural objects or other things inspire creative interest and emotion. It is mainly about the emotional effect of external objects on the subject when, in the absence of certain emotions or with other emotions deeply embedded in the heart, an author is touched by accidental encounters with external objects. The concept “be moved at the sight of natural objects” is mainly about the author’s love for nature. With the concept “draw inspiration from external object,” what inspires creative interest and emotion is not limited to natural objects. For example, literary and artistic works can inspire similar interest and emotion. However, the concept “be moved at the sight of natural objects” is primarily used in reference to natural objects or landscapes.
DETAILED>>One should always be on alert against potential danger in time of peace. All ambitious rulers in history hoped to maintain enduring stability. They often reminded themselves not to indulge in pleasure and comfort, but to conduct diligent governance, work hard to make their country prosperous, and resolve social conflicts in a timely manner so as to prevent them from developing into crises. This keen awareness of potential danger was a quality of accomplished rulers in Chinese history. This notion has also become a principle for modern enterprise management, and been adopted by common people in their pursuit of progress .
DETAILED>>The pursuit of moral principles in daily life should be true and sincere. “Being sincere in thought” is one of the “eight essential principles” from the philosophical text The Great Learning, the other seven being “studying things,” “acquiring knowledge,” “rectifying one’s mind,” “cultivating oneself,” “regulating one’s family well,” “governing the state properly,” and “bringing peace to all under heaven.” Those constitute important stages in the moral cultivation advocated by Confucian scholars. “Sincerity in thought” has as its preceding stage the “extension of knowledge.” One can only identify and follow the principle of “sincerity in thought” on the basis of understanding the moral principles in daily life. One’s true desire will then naturally reflect itself in one’s daily behavior. An individual’s moral conduct must stem from a genuine wish and must not just conform superficially to the moral principles without true intention of practicing them.
DETAILED>>The expression means to be sociable with others in a moral and ethical way, but not to form a clique with selfish interests. Qun (群) here means the majority, and associating with it means seeking the common good. Budang (不党) means not to form small factions or cliques purely for selfish reasons or private expediency. A similar expression is “be close but not cliquish.” This is a principle of political ethics, and those who have power and are responsible for governing should follow it by working for the public good.
DETAILED>>This means that the party, especially the one who initiates a military engagement, should plan carefully in advance so as to avoid taking ill-prepared moves. A good commander expects to win victory by taking the initiative and will plan meticulously. On the basis of comparing his forces with the adversary in all aspects, the commander seeks to create the most favorable conditions for himself and make plans for all eventualities and changes to make sure that the engagement will unfold in the way he wishes and thus allow him to gain the upper hand. The saying that “do not fight if you are not sure of defeating the enemy” originates from this expression.
DETAILED>>This term originally refers to an attitude in reading classics, requiring one to become deeply absorbed in the work as if one were submerged in water, repeatedly ruminating on its meaning until one is able to fully digest its significance so that it informs one’s own feelings and insights. In time this becomes a way of learning, impelling one to mobilize one’s own experience and accumulated knowledge to think deeply about what he is reading so that knowledge is endlessly renewed and refreshed. As a method of understanding and interpreting literary works, it requires one to place one’s own thought in the particular world of the work so that one becomes deeply aware of why the work was so written and can master its subtle meanings and aesthetic conception. This method is premised on the understanding that literary works can be deeply inspiring and enlightening.
DETAILED>>This term describes a person who is wise and acts properly. Such a person has broad knowledge, is considerate and flexible in handling things, and knows how to behave in accordance with social norms and etiquette. This kind of person never takes unnecessary risks, nor lazily muddles along in life. Ancient Chinese held high esteem for such a person who knows how to integrate knowledge and action, talent and virtue, and flexibility and principles.
The term means to eliminate animosity in order to turn war into peace and turn conflicts into amity. Gan (干) and ge (戈) are two weapons of war which were used for defense and attack respectively in ancient China. Yu (玉) and bo (帛) mean jades (such as jade tablets and jade ornaments) which were gifts exchanged between feudal lords and tribute paid to monarchs. In time, yu and bo acquired the meaning of peace and co-existence. This term reflects the Chinese people’s long-standing aspiration for peace and goodwill to dissolve conflict and violence.
DETAILED>>A term in ancient Chinese poetic terminology, this concept refers to aesthetic appreciation that is natural, spontaneous, and unadulterated. Xian (现) means“appear,” and liang (量) means “measurement.”The term came originally from the Hetu vidya (knowledge of causes) Theory in Buddhism, and referred to the direct responses of human senses to physical things in the world. Buddhism holds that human intuitive perception of the physical world is a spontaneous and subjective reaction that does not need intentional deliberation. Wang Fuzhi (1619-1692)applied the term to art and literary criticism to argue that aesthetic images in familiar lines of classical Chinese poems such as“upon the long river the setting sun is round” and “ask the woodcutter across the stream” come from direct observation and spontaneous reaction. Thus the “beauty of spontaneous response”is actually a type of beauty that can be intuitively sensed, arouses interest on the spot,naturally inspires, needs no rationale, and defies explanation.
This term refers to two things that are mutually opposite to but complementing each other and that they mutually transform between them. Everything is an antithesis to something else. Both antithetic sides are opposite to each other. Therefore there is mutual exclusion between them, such as you and wu, long and short, high and low, good and bad, and beautiful and ugly. On the other hand, the nature or the identity of a thing is established due to something antithetic to it. The two opposing sides can transform into each other under certain conditions. This concept emerged in the pre-Qin period. In The History of the Han Dynasty written by Ban Gu（32-92）, the idea was first defined as “two things being both opposite and complementary.”
DETAILED>>The basic meaning of the term is to put oneself in another person’s position and have empathy, and to reflect what one would do in the same kind of situation. Starting out from their own likes and dislikes, people can understand and show considerations for the wishes of others, and on the basis of such understanding, people should refrain from imposing their own likes and dislikes on others. This is what it means to be considerate. To those enforcing the law and to the victims of wrongdoing, the meaning of the term extended to mean forgiveness or pardon.
DETAILED>>One who has a sense of satisfaction is truly wealthy. This is a saying of the ancient Chinese philosopher Laozi which expresses his attitude towards fame and fortune. Its essence lies in emphasizing the importance of cultivating one’s inner nature and elevating one’s inner spirit. It also implies the right relationship between satisfaction and wealth. Wealth not only means external material things, but also reflects an individual’s subjective perception or self-evaluation. Without self-improvement of one’s inner spirit, the relentless pursuit of external gains and greediness may result in a feeling of spiritual emptiness no matter how much fame and fortune one gains. This saying reminds us that our goal in life should be to increase our inner strength, rather than just seek fame or fortune.
DETAILED>>This concept is about the quiet and reticent demeanor of people who are preoccupied with exploring profound, esoteric and novel issues. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, written by Liu Xie (465?-520?or532?) in the Southern Dynasties, it refers to writings with profound meaning and deep emotion but are expressed in a plain, simple, unpretentious and unadorned way. Also it refers to a style of similar kind. Later, this concept evolved into a writing style of pursuing an aesthetic effect that appears plain but is rich and evocative, similar to the writing style of iceberg principle and zero intervention in Western literature.
DETAILED>>Have trust in one’s self so that one strongly believes in the correctness and validity of one’s thoughts and actions. One who has such a belief will give up neither one’s conviction nor one’s goals. He will neither waver nor submit to others. A strong sense of personal integrity underlies this sense of self-belief, which in turn wins the trust of others. The term expresses a sense of self, and relates closely to the concept “strive continuously to strengthen oneself.”
DETAILED>>Zhu or benediction is a short essay written to pay tribute to gods and seek their blessing. Meng or a vow of allegiance is made by allies to gods. They both express a wish and a commitment to gods. According to Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties, a zhu should be sincere in tone and plain in wording, without any pomposity or fanfare. A meng, as a vow of allegiance, is intended to let gods know the commitment of rulers to entering into an alliance and sharing weal and woe. Therefore, a meng should be candid and sincere and reinforce solidarity between the allies through a prayer to gods. The success of entering into an alliance, said Liu Xie, depends ultimately on the sincerity of all the parties involved, not on gods. But a beautifully written zhu or meng will help to foster trust in and noble character among the people involved.
DETAILED>>The term means to benefit and provide for the people. Huimin (惠民) is a concrete manifestation of benevolent governance and loving the people, with focus on dividing wealth among the people and benefiting them. The emphasis is on placing the interests of the people first, so that they will support both ruler and government officials. Specifically this means all policies and measures must be in the public interest, must fulfill and ensure the real needs of the people, and keep wealth with them; they should not conflict with the public interest, or worse, be deceitful or resort to force.
DETAILED>>Benwu, or original non-being, is a term used to refer to void. Philosophical schools in the Eastern Jin Dynasty used it to bracket the doctrine of emptiness from the Prajñāpāramitā literatures ("The Perfection of Wisdom"), arguing that things are fundamentally non-existent. In the view of Seng Zhao (384 or 374–414) and the like , the pitfall of this standpoint, by emphasizing the absolute “emptiness,” is an inclination towards nihilism (which is expressively rejected by Buddhist doctrines). Seng Zhao thus criticized it through his writings: here affirmed the middle way (away from the two extremes of nihilism and eternalism), thus interpreted the emptiness as but the dependent origination. This term benwu can also be found in the works of later generations. In certain cases however, it was reinvented to be the “emptiness as the dependent origination” rather than “absolute emptiness”. So, one should be cautious about its various connotations in different historical context.
It is better to die than to endure a life of humiliation. Since ancient times, the Chinese have “prized life” and “respected life.” At the same time, they felt that life itself was neither the goal nor the meaning of a person’s existence. If a conflict should arise between preserving an individual’s life and staying on the right path, he should sacrifice his life to uphold what is right rather than go on living ignobly. The essence of a virtuous life is having a correct perspective on life and death and a noble perspective on the value of life. At the moral level, Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals elucidated a“forcedlife” as one that is “not righteous.” This is the ultimate expression of the Chinese view of a virtuous life. In saying “give me decency or give me death,” it resembles “give me liberty or give me death.”
DETAILED>>This refers to prejudice a person has developed towards a particular person or thing. The concept is from Zhuangzi. The author Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) believed that people will develop biased views about other people or things when they only look at other people or things from their own perspectives. Such bias caused by different points of view or standards can lead to disagreement or confrontation. People seldom realize that they have a biased mind. Thus Zhuangzi suggested that people need to be aware of their own biased mind and overcome it.
DETAILED>>Bodhi refers to the noblest form of wisdom, which is capable of eliminating affliction. The literal meaning of the term is "enlightenment" or "awakening." It refers to the wisdom that can do away with afflictions of all kinds, which hinder the believer's progress towards his or her ultimate enlightenment. Admittedly, bodhi is the ultimate destination of all Buddhist practices. But different approaches result in different levels of bodhi. Chinese Buddhism is inclined to uphold the ideas of "inherent awareness" or "[rediscovered] true enlightenment," arguing that the result of one's practice is based on none other than one's inherent wisdom.
DETAILED>>This term indicates that a writer should give expression to his true feelings in literary creation and not be constrained by particular regulations or formulas. It was first used by Ming Dynasty writer Yuan Hongdao (1568-1610) as he commented on the literary work of his younger brother Yuan Zhongdao (1570-1626). Later, it became the core idea of the Gong’an School of Literary Writing, firmly opposed to the stubborn emulation of ancient literature as advocated by the Former Seven Masters and the Latter Seven Masters of the time, who highly esteemed prose of the Qin and Han dynasties and poetry of the golden Tang era. The Gong’an School emphasized that literature and art flow forth from the heart, value freedom and originality, and refuse to be bound by any convention. This school urged poets to defy any restriction imposed on them. This view was important to the assertion of individuality and rebellion against tradition, at a time when reverence for and emulation of ancient literature was the trend. It exerted a positive influence on literary creation in that era and later.
DETAILED>>These are terms that were traditionally used in painting and calligraphy theory and literary criticism to refer specifically to a vigorous and forceful manner or style of execution in combination with softer, more feminine touches. In physiognomy, which was popular during the Qin and Han period, gu (骨) referred to the human frame and rou (肉), the skin and flesh. By the Late Han, Wei and the Six Dynasties, the term came to be employed in literary criticism as well. In the field of painting and calligraphy, “bones” were virile and energetic strokes whereas “flesh” was the heavy use of ink or color to create an effect of elegant plumpness. In literary writing, “bones” meant a sturdy overall structure, and “flesh,” any appropriate rhetorical or formal means employed to fill it out. Bones and flesh, when mentioned together, refer metaphorically to the relation between the framework (i.e., the moral message and structural features) and the nuanced aspects of expression of a literary work. They also imply a union between the essential idea and sentiment of a literary work and its formal beauty.
By boring a hole in the next door neighbor’s wall, he borrows light in order to read. Well-known scholar Kuang Heng in the Western Han Dynasty loved reading but his family was too poor to afford candles for him to read at night, so he chiseled a hole in the next door neighbor’s wall to “borrow light” in order to read. He later became a great scholar. As an inspirational story in ancient times, its significance extends beyond the story itself. It tells how important it is to be diligent in gaining knowledge.
Governance of a country is like playing music, which pursues harmony. This concept is first found in Discourses on Governance of the States. It is an important part of music theory from the pre-Qin period and highlights the similarity between the two. Traditional Chinese music contains five musical notes. Musical instruments, varying in volume, will not be deemed perfect unless they sound concordant and poised, complementing and echoing each other. In governing a country, the ruler should also strike an equilibrium between different voices and forces. So far as music itself is concerned, “harmony” does not mean homogeneity; rather, it refers to a diversity of melodies integrated into a harmonious whole. A uniform voice is unpleasant and dull. A harmonious voice, on the other hand, not only provides a delightful aesthetic experience but also enhances people’s moral well-being. This will make them mild in temperament, thus creating an ideal situation of social and political stability.
DETAILED>>This term means to be bright without being dazzling. Laozi used the term to describe the influence of those in power on ordinary people. High status, authority and resources enable them to have a great impact on people’s lives, just like a bright light that cannot be avoided. However, Laozi also believed that no person in power should impose his will on the people, whose natural state should be maintained and protected. To be influenced but not harmed is like being surrounded by light but not dazzled by it. The term can be used to describe the way any powerful person should treat others.
DETAILED>>On the semantic level, fan’ai (泛爱), like the term bo’ai (博爱), means a broad love that extends to all. However, in the history of Chinese thought, it has been used with a different connotation: while bo’ai generally suggests “love of all human beings,” fan’ai infers “love of all humans as well as all things.” It means the same as what Mencius（372?-289 BC） advocated that men of virtue should love others and treasure everything on earth, and what Zhang Zai （1020-1077）proposed that all people are brothers and sisters, and all things are companions.
DETAILED>>The term means broad-mindedness and a totally unconstrained artistic style in poetic works. It presents a perfect union of the author’s outlook on life, his peaceful mind, and the artistic form of his work. A broad-minded writer was often disheartened, who went into seclusion, caused either by frustrations countered in life or social turmoil, and he would naturally seek to express his emotion in literature. As reflected in his writings, such a writer possessed a keen insight into the vicissitudes of worldly affairs. Being cynical and indignant, he also revealed such feelings of disdain for the world and its ways in his writings. The origin of this attitude can be traced back to the Confucian concept of proactivity and the Daoist proposition of following the nature, as well as to the open and cultured way of life characteristic of famous scholars of the Wei and Jin dynasties. Such a writer would not shy away from the worldly, but neither would he cling to fame and wealth. He was completely reasonable in attitude and tolerant in mood. Sikong Tu（837-908）, a literary critic in the Tang Dynasty, used this term to assess poetic and aesthetic achievement by emphasizing the unity of the style of a work and the mental attitude and the view about human life on the part of the author. The idea is to promote a view about life and an aesthetic attitude that is open-minded and uplifting.
DETAILED>>Bronze script refers to writings inscribed on bronze ware in the Shang and Zhou dynasties; it was developed from inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells. There were many sub-types of bronze ware in ancient China, but they were roughly under two main categories: sacrificial vessels and musical instruments. Sacrificial vessels were represented by tripod or quadripod cauldrons, and musical instruments, by chimes. Therefore, ancient bronze ware was formerly known as “chimes and cauldrons,” and bronze script used to be called “chime and cauldron inscriptions.” The use of bronze script began in the Shang Dynasty, grew very popular in the Zhou Dynasty, and declined in the Qin Dynasty, lasting over 800 years. Bronze script contained over 3,700 characters, of which 2,420 are now intelligible, slightly outnumbering the intelligible characters on bones and tortoise shells. Bronze script was mainly records of sacrificial ceremonies, bestowals, announcements of decrees, declarations of war, hunting expeditions, and pledges of allegiance. It reflected life in those historical periods.
DETAILED>>This term originally referred to siblings in the same family. On the basis of the belief that all living creatures are created by heaven and earth, Zhang Zai (1020–1077) of the Northern Song Dynasty advanced the view that all people were brothers and sisters and all living things companions. The meaning of the term was thus extended from blood ties to include people of the same nation or state, especially those with a common language and culture. Sometimes the term goes beyond the nation to refer to all of humanity. By tracing common ancestry, language and culture, it rouses and strengthens people’s sense of identity and recognition of their own nation and state. Equality and universal love it embodies are a source of inspiration for humanity.
Although brothers may quarrel at home, they always stick together to resist bullying by outsiders. This refers to people who have internal conflicts and disputes can still put together to resist aggression. It gives full expression to the desire of the Chinese people to stick together in time of crisis. In modern times, this expression has been used to symbolize the unity of Chinese nation when facing a survival crisis caused by foreign aggression.
The term means to accumulate as much as possible but to release a little at a time. This often refers to the process of scholarly research or artistic creation, in which one should first extensively absorb the knowledge and results of others to acquire a wealth of knowledge and lay a solid foundation. On this basis, one is engaged in further scholarly studies or artistic creation, attempting to make new accomplishments. It can also refer to a country or a business which, after a long period of building up its strength, begins to gradually unleash its potential and ability to innovate and proceed to break new ground. The message of this expression is that one should never seek quick results; rather, one should pay attention to accumulating knowledge and making full preparations before making advances.
DETAILED>>Disaster for a state is the collapse of its political power base, not the disintegration of its upper ruling stratum. The foundation of state power is popular allegiance and control of grass-roots society. “Collapse like a landslide” is a metaphor for political authority losing popular support, all of society crumbling precipitously and the people being driven to desperation and revolt. “Roof-tiles coming loose” refers to disintegration and splits in the ruling group, some struggling for power and others breaking the law and even plotting rebellion. Collapse means shaking the social and economic foundations of state power and denying its legitimacy and right to exist. It is thus something much to be feared. Disintegration, on the other hand, can usually be overcome within the existing framework and is not to be feared as much. This kind of political wisdom attaches great importance to the will of the people and governing grass-roots society. It is similar to the idea of “people first.”
To become a good calligrapher, one must first set one’s mind at ease and dismiss all distracting thoughts. This is an argument raised by Cai Yong (133-192), a famous Eastern Han calligrapher, in his treatise “On Calligraphic Script.” He says that the art of calligraphy discloses the calligrapher's personal feeling, stressing the need to unleash one’s true self and to eliminate all of life's burdens and practical considerations. This view takes such actions as being crucial to the success of a calligraphic work.
The cap wearing ceremony indicated that one had reached adulthood. In ancient China, when a young man came of age, at 20, an important ceremony was held to mark the event. During the ceremony, he would wear different types of caps, hence, the name of the ceremony. Such a ritual suggested that a young man came of age, not only in terms of his physical constitution, but also in terms of the moral standing required of him as an adult. Having gone through this rite, a man was considered qualified to shoulder his responsibilities as an adult in life and take part in important ceremonies or activities.
This term refers to the place where the Son of Heaven resided and conducted state affairs. Jing (京) originally meant a big hill or mound, representing the idea of being big or grand, and shi (师) meant a lot of people. To name the place where the the Son of Heaven resided and conducted state affairs jing or jingshi (京师) suggests that the capital is huge in size and expresses reverence towards the Son of Heaven.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the city in which a state ruler resided and conducted government affairs. The difference between a du (都) and a yi (邑) was that the former had an ancestral temple to enshrine the memorial tablets of ancestors and previous rulers while the latter did not. An ancestral temple used to be a place where rulers, the nobility, and senior officials made offerings to their ancestors. Therefore, an ancestral temple was a product of ancestral worshipping and a symbol of the patriarchal clan system. It is the defining structure of a du. During the Zhou Dynasty, the political center of all ducal states was called du. From the Qin and Han dynasties onward, du referred to the place where the emperor lived. Later, all cities large in scale and population were called du.
DETAILED>>Painters depict physical appearances to reveal the essence. Gu Kaizhi(345?-409), a painter of the Eastern Jin dynasty, lays great emphasis on the correspondence between the essence and physical forms: He depicts the appearance of objects in great detail, which embodies their spiritual disposition. He believes this is the highest requirement of painting. He urges painters to capture those outward features that best reveal the spiritual attributes of the objects depicted. This view has exerted a great influence on later artistic endeavors.
It was thought in ancient China that a person matured through five stages: broad study for collecting information and acquiring knowledge, close examination for identifying problems and resolving doubts, careful reflection for absorbing and mastering knowledge, clear discrimination for developing concepts and reaching conclusions, and earnest practice for putting knowledge into practice and developing character. These stages can be roughly divided into three areas: learning, reflection, and practice. “Careful reflection and clear discrimination” describes the stage of reflection between learning and practice. It can also be said that study and reflection on the one hand and study and practice on the other complement each other, while reflection is a deepening and heightening of learning, a prerequisite for practice, and a key link between learning and practice.
DETAILED>>Being friendly and caring for others is most important. Ancient Chinese believed that human beings are most precious things in the world, so benevolent people care for others. When it comes to governing a country, a ruler’s love for others should be transformed into love for the people. People are the most fundamental components of a state whose stability and security depend on its people. Therefore, a ruler should consider it his top priority to have love for his people, to be considerate to his people, to always make things easier for his people and follow his people’s will. Policies should be made in the interest of the people, and so should laws and institutions. This is not only what a benevolent government that Confucianism advocates is all about, it is also the basic concept on which ancient legalists made policies and laws for running a country. It epitomizes Chinese people’s humanitarian sentiments.
DETAILED>>Water can carry a boat, but can also overturn it. Here, water is compared to the people, while the boat is compared to the ruler. The phrase, “carry or overturn the boat,” reveals the importance of popular support: people are the critical force that decides the future of a regime and a country. This is consistent with such political doctrines as “the people are the foundation of the state,” and “follow the mandate of heaven and comply with the wishes of the people.” Since ancient times, this term has served as a warning to the ruler, reminding him of the need to respect local conditions and popular will, to govern the country for the people, and to anticipate dangers in times of security.
DETAILED>>Lei (类) is used to refer to people or things which have similar attributes or characteristics. It represents recognition of the commonalities of things and the differences between categories. Establishing which categories individual entities belong to, and what distinctions and boundaries there are between different types is the basis for naming and developing an order of all things in the world. Many ancient schools of thought studied the concept of lei, and offered different views on the use of category names, the principles of categorization, and the relationships between objects in the same category.
DETAILED>>Gu (故) denotes the cause of things. This causal connection, represented by gu, forms a fundamental relationship among things. Analyzing these causes is vital for discerning things. Understanding the causes shaping events enables one to handle situations appropriately and guide their development effectively.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the fundamental state of the existence of things. Bian (变) and hua (化) may be used as one word or separately. Specifically, bian means manifest change, while hua indicates subtle and gradual change. Ancient Chinese thinkers generally held that all things under heaven and on earth, including humans and society, are all in a state of change. Only through constant change can they permanently exist and develop. Change is caused by constant clash and integration between the conflicting properties with which people and things are endowed. Some scholars believed that change follows a constant law and can thus be understood and grasped, while others maintained that change is unpredictable and therefore difficult to grasp. Buddhism, on the other hand, holds that changes of things are only superficial, and that all things are still and motionless.
DETAILED>>The term suggests that literary creation is affected by changes of the times. Author and literary scholar Liu Xie (465？-520) of the Southern Dynasties who used this term pointed out that literary creation is not an isolated phenomenon. Rather, it is affected by numerous historical factors, such as the prevailing social and political conditions, the personal preferences of rulers, as well as intellectual trends.
DETAILED>>This is one of the important functions of music. Social practices are common forms of behavior formed within communities over time, and they can also include aspects that do not conform to rites. Changing such widespread habits is extremely difficult and cannot be accomplished by mandatory regulations alone. This is where music comes into play by affecting and stirring people’s emotions so that they gradually change their ways and willingly conform to the requirements of rites.
DETAILED>>The term means taking power from a ruler. Ge (革) means to change or remove. Ming (命) first referred to the mandate of heaven and later came to mean a ruler’s decrees and his mandate to rule. Changing the mandate usually involves replacing a ruler and a change of dynasty, in other words, overthrowing an old regime and establishing a new one. People in ancient China believed that a ruler’s mandate to rule was ordained by Heaven and therefore any change of the mandate should in essence be carried out in response to the will of Heaven. However, change is a basic law of the universe, and the removal of a ruler’s mandate is a specific expression of this law. The legitimacy and success of such change depend on whether those who lead the change do so in response to the will of heaven and the popular desire of the people. In modern times, the term is used as an expression meaning revolution, denoting major social, political or economic changes.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the proper way of appreciating classic Chinese poetry in ancient times. Specifically, when reading a poem aloud，it was supposed to intone a poem with cadence; namely, by following a pattern of rising and falling tones with pauses in between. Through repeated chanting and recitals, they captured the rhythm, rhyme, hidden meaning and sentiment of the poem and finally understood the core message conveyed by the author. On that basis, they might even be able to form an interpretation of their own. Chanting played a vital role in poetic appreciation largely due to the musicality of classic Chinese poetry. Readers not only read cadence but sang melodiously as well.
DETAILED>>The term has two meanings. First, it refers to the state of one whole mass that existed before the universe took shape, often said to exist before qi (vital force) emerged. The multitude of organisms on earth all emanated from this state. Second, it refers to Chaos, king of the Central Region in a fable in Zhuangzi. According to the fable, Chaos had no eyes, nose, mouth or ears. Shu, king of the South Sea, and Hu, king of the North Sea, drilled seven apertures into Chaos and killed him. Zhuangzi （369？-286 BC）used this story to show the state of chaos of the world in which there is neither knowledge or wisdom, nor distinction between good and evil.
DETAILED>>This term means poetry creation should present the unembellished beauty of nature and the genuine sentiments of human beings. The original meaning of yingzhi (英旨) is good taste. Used as a literary term, however, it refers to charming content and aesthetic conception in poetry. In The Critique of Poetry, Zhong Rong（？-518？） of the Southern Dynasties called on poets to express their thoughts and sentiments in their own words and opposed borrowing expressions from ancient poets. He criticized the excessive attention to ornate language and tonal rhythms in the writing of five-character-per-line poetry. He maintained that spontaneously created poems of good taste were most valuable. The expressions “natural” and “simple and unaffected” in later literary criticisms contain Zhong Rong’s ideas.
This term means to cherish life and cherish the people. The ancient Chinese believed that the beauty of the natural world lies in its enabling all living creatures to perpetuate themselves, and the universal sentiment of human beings is to cherish life and abhor death. Therefore those who govern must make special efforts to cherish people’s lives. For example, they must not readily resort to the death penalty or start wars; they should eliminate things which harm the people and enable people to lead settled lives. The “virtue of cherishing life” is one which those who govern ought to have, and it is also a principle which they should strictly abide by. This concept is consistent with the ideas of “cherishing the people” and that “the greatest good is to cherish others,” but it goes a step further. It offers a philosophy of life as a foundation for governance; it is the basic concept explaining why people should be empathetic and accommodating to others; it is also often cited as the starting point for the humanist theories of Chinese medicine.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a person’s innate nature, that is, the pure and true mind of a child not influenced by subsequent enculturation. “Childlike heart” is a concept of literary creation advanced by the late Ming thinker Li Zhi (1527-1602) to counter what he considered the conceited writing style of the Neo-Confucian School of Principle and the dogmatic imitation of the ancients by the Classicist School of Literary Creation. Li Zhi’s “childlike heart” claims that all good writing comes from an untarnished heart. Only by writing with a childlike heart, natural and innate, can one break away from the shackles imposed by the Confucian principle that “emotions coming from the heart should be constrained by rites,” thus creating first-rate work by any standard. The proposition of “childlike heart” relates both to thoughts on individual emancipation in the late Ming Dynasty, and the influence of Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind. In literary creation, this “childlike heart” is expressed as a love for natural and pure beauty, reflecting people’s desire to shatter the restraints imposed by rites, as well as their will to pursue freedom and liberty. As such, it helped shape literary creation in the late Ming Dynasty, and has a significant impact on the formation of modern literary trends.
The dragon is a mystique and auspicious animal in Chinese mythology, with its image having the features of a number of animals: bull's head, deer antlers, shrimp's eyes, donkey's mouth, human beard, snake's body, and eagle's claws. It can walk, fly, swim, and even raise clouds and make rain. It holds boundless supernatural powers and can transform itself into different creatures at will. As one of the oldest totems of the Chinese nation, the dragon became a symbol of the emperor or the imperial house after the Qin and Han dynasties. Later, it further evolved into a common spiritual and cultural symbol of the Han ethnic group and all Chinese people. In China, the dragon represents unity, power, reverence, dignity, excellence and good luck, which is quite opposite to the evil and greedy dragon in Western mythology and tradition.
DETAILED>>Ci poems are a literary form with a distinctive style and aesthetic value. Li Qingzhao ( 1084-1151 ?), in her essay “On Ci Poems,” argued that ci poems are different from other poems in that ci poems focus on expressing one’s emotions and convey musical beauty. She made a detailed analysis of the similarities and differences between ci poems and poems of other style. Ci poems were divided into level and oblique tones and stressed rhymes like other poems. However, ci poems pursued the beauty of melody and tune, that is, the beauty of music, not just beauty in form. Ci poems required that the combination of words and sounds as well as the rhyme and pronunciations of words should be suitable for singing according to scores. Thus, the ci poets mostly relied on their experiences and repeatedly chanted their ci poems until the ci poems they wrote conveyed musical beauty. This particular feature faded as ci poems became a distinct poetic genre no longer associated with music. This concept in ci poetry is mainly directed against Northern Song Dynasty poet Su Shi’s ( 1037-1101 ) view of writing ci poems in a general poetic style, blurring the boundary between poetry and lyrics. However, her views are still instructive for today’s songwriters.
DETAILED>>Classical academies were cultural and educational institutions that existed in China from the Tang and Song dynasties through the Ming and Qing dynasties. They were established either by the public or the government to serve the multiple purposes of education, research, and library service. Their origins were Buddhist monasteries and private libraries in the Tang Dynasty. Classical academies flourished in the Song Dynasty. In the early years of the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi (1130-1200), Zhang Shi (1133-1180), Lü Zuqian (1137-1181), Lu Jiuyuan (1139-1193)
, and some other scholars established academies that served as teaching and research centers of their respective schools of thought. The academies were independent of government schools and were located mostly in tranquil and scenic places. Under the supervision of learned Confucian scholars, the academies pursued academic freedom and innovation. Teachers taught by both precept and example, and laid stress on shaping their students’ moral character, rather than encouraging them to win degrees in the imperial civil examination system. By the end of the Southern Song Dynasty, however, the academies became increasingly government-oriented and were linked with the imperial civil examination system. The rise and decline of the academies was in harmony with the rise and decline of the School of Principle during the Song and Ming dynasties. In 1901 the Qing government ordered all the academies be changed to schools in modern sense. Having existed for more than 1,000 years, the academies greatly helped develop traditional Chinese culture and education, and convey Chinese culture abroad.
This term refers to a type of writing that is classically elegant. Originally, it meant that a piece of writing should be modeled on ancient classics, express pure and noble ideas, and follow classical literary styles by using Confucian doctrines for aesthetic guidance. Later, the term shifted to emphasize elegant diction and style that were free from vulgarity and frivolity. Later still, it gradually incorporated Daoist aesthetic views, suggesting natural tranquility and spiritual transcendence. For example, in “Twenty-four Styles of Poetry,” Sikong Tu （837-908）described classical elegance as being “as quiet as falling flower petals and as modest as unassuming daisies,” which is close to the simple, relaxed, and natural style advocated by Daoist scholars.
DETAILED>>It refers to the literary reform movement in the mid-Tang to the Northern Song period. It opposed rigidly rhythmical prose featuring parallelism and excessive elegance that had been popular in the Six Dynasties, and advocated a return to writing in “truly” classical Chinese. This movement was both intellectual and social in nature. Its representative figures included Han Yu (768-824) and Liu Zongyuan (773-819) of the Tang Dynasty and Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), Su Xun (1009-1066), Wang Anshi (1021-1086), Zeng Gong (1019-1083), Su Shi (1037-1101), and Su Zhe (1039-1112) of the Song Dynasty. In this particular context, the notion of classical prose stood in contrast to rigidly rhythmical prose. Classical prose, first proposed by Han Yu, referred to the prose of the Qin, Western Han, and Eastern Han dynasties. It featured poetic lines of flexible lengths with no particular regard for metric pattern and parallel structure. In terms of content, classical prose aimed to express ideas and reflect real life. Rigidly rhythmical prose, on the other hand, was a style of writing popular in the pre-Tang period which had rigid requirement about the use of parallelism, elegant wording, prosody, melody, and allusions. Although there were good works in this genre, most were rigid in form and hollow in content. In view of this, Han Yu called for a return to the literary tradition of the Western and Eastern Han dynasties to reform literary writing. He gained the strong support of eminent men of letters such as Liu Zongyuan. Together, they launched what was later widely known as the Classical Prose Movement. Han Yu took this initiative to combine the reform of literary writing with the revival of Confucian moralism so as to enable literary writing to promote better governance. But rhythmical prose did not die out altogether; it continued into the late Tang period. Northern Song writer Ouyang Xiu, with strong political influence, championed the revival of classical prose. His contemporary Su Xun, as well as his students Wang Anshi, Zeng Gong, Su Shi, and Su Zhe all wrote classical prose with distinctive styles. Influenced by Su Shi, Huang Tingjian (1045-1105), Chen Shidao (1053-1102), Zhang Lei (1054-1114), Qin Guan (1049-1100), and Chao Buzhi (1053-1110) also became prominent prose writers. Thanks to the efforts of these literary figures, the Classical Prose Movement flourished in the Song Dynasty.
DETAILED>>Originally, this term referred to universal ways and the texts in which they are recorded. Later, it came to refer to written texts that set standards. Jing (经) here describes the warp yarns on a loom. Because warp yarns have to be steady for the weft to go through and thus create a woven fabric, it has come to signify underlying norms. Subsequently, people refer to those texts that contain underlying rules and can serve as guidelines for thought and behavior as jing (classics). Examples of such classics include the Six Classics, Buddhist sutras, Laozi, and Yellow Emperor’s Internal Canon of Medicine. Dian (典) originally described the holding, with both hands, of a book of bound bamboo strips to worship the spirits. It subsequently came to include all bamboo strips, documents, and books that set standards and norms as well as such concepts as models, principles, or the constant way. Used together, those two Chinese characters refer to authoritative writings that articulate universal ways. In ancient China, this term mainly referred to the Four Books and Five Classics of Confucianism. In modern times, it has become the equivalent to the English word “classics,” referring in general to authoritative writings with enduring influence in various disciplines, writings that have become a source of inspiration of human civilization.
DETAILED>>It refers to the study of Confucian classics. Classics scholarship is also called "studies of the six arts," namely, the scholarship on The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals, encompassing annotations and exegeses of classics, explication of the principles of classics, and discussions of such subjects as textual inheritance and traditions, as well as the origins of various schools. Classics scholarship is pursued to express one's fundamental understanding of the order and values of the world through constant exploration of the underlying implications of such classics.
DETAILED>>The term refers to an exegetical classification in which a Buddhist school, in order to bridge theological differences of various teachings or establish its own position and authority, ranks the significance and status of various scriptures. It is also known as jiaopan (classification of the tenets). Different schools and sects adopt different systems of classification. The common practice is to begin with the easy ones, working all the way up to the most profound, and it usually ends with one's own school as the supreme. Such a practice may take its origin in Indian Buddhism, and the exegetical communities of the Sui and Tang dynasties have particular interest in establishing their own classification. For example, the "five periods and eight teachings" of the Tiantai School divides the Buddha's instruction chronologically into five phases: (1) Huayan or Avataṃsaka (Garland), (2) Ahan or Āgama (Scriptures), (3) Fangdeng or Vaipulya (Broad and equal teaching exemplified by Mahayana), (4) Dabore or Mahāprajñāpāramitā (Great Perfection of Wisdom), and (5) Fahua-Niepan or Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-Mahāparinirvāṇa (Lotus Sutra and The Final Nirvana); or pedagogically into four classes: the sudden, gradual, esoteric, and indeterminate teaching; or in terms of the theoretical inclination, into four classes: the Tripiṭaka, common, distinct, and comprehensive or perfect teachings. These synthetic categorizations are tinted by distinct local sectarian tendencies, hence had profound influence on the acculturation of Buddhism in China.
DETAILED>>“Classified name” is a category used in the Mohist School for naming the same kind of things. The Mohists stressed the importance of properly naming things in different ways to reflect their real nature. They had three ways to name things: unrestricted, classified, and private.“Classified name”refers to the name for the same kind of things, such as the name“horse.” “Horse”is used to refer to horses of all different types.
This term, from Xunzi, means to clear the mind of enigmas so that one may understand dao. Xunzi （313？-238 BC） believes that man’s moral integrity depends on his understanding of dao. However, man’s likes and dislikes, desires and external factors are likely to jaundice his understanding of dao. To clear such enigmas, one needs to cultivate one’s mind to keep it open, concentrated, and tranquil.
DETAILED>>This refers to emptying one's mind, casting aside all kinds of worldly interference and eliminating the desire for fame and fortune. In a state of thorough, lucid serenity, one can observe and enjoy physical objects as manifested by Dao. “Clearing the mind” is the precondition for “savoring aesthetic images.” People's appreciation of beauty can approach the infinite Dao only by breaking loose from worldly constraints and vulgar influences. At that very moment, the boundary between oneself and external objects disappears. The beholder, feasting eyes on beautiful mountains, rivers and lakes, achieves communion with Dao and thus attains a true mental freedom and transcendence. “Clearing the mind for pure contemplation” is an important term in traditional Chinese landscape painting theory; categorically, it belongs to artistic intuitionism. It carries on and further develops Laozi's notion of cleansing away all distracting thoughts and watching the world with a clear, peaceful mind, which inspires theories of creativity in calligraphy, literature and other artistic fields.
DETAILED>>“Cleverness” is a synonym for ingenuity, intelligence or exquisite skills. “Clumsiness,” on the other hand, means awkwardness, dullness of the mind or lacking in skill. In the field of art, “cleverness” refers to an ingenious, effortless state of creation whereby general layout, wording, and writing techniques together are at their natural best. It stresses the ornamental function of artistic form. Many theorists favor the idea of retaining“clumsiness” but oppose deliberate manipulation of skill. “Clumsiness” here isn’t the same as shoddy or of a low grade. It means a perfectly natural state of being, or a piece of writing so excellent by its own right as to lose all traces of artificial ingenuity. However, this “clumsiness” should be attained naturally. If a writer deliberately pursues clumsiness, it will only backfire. Cleverness and clumsiness are complementary to each other. Any pretense should be abandoned in favor of what is natural. Only then can artistic excellence be achieved.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the exercise of benevolent government by virtuous and wise rulers in ancient China to win the allegiance of all the vassals, so as to achieve an integration and acculturation of different tribes, nations or ethnic groups and create a harmonious and unified alliance of tribes or a multi-ethnic state. Harmonious coexistence of all is a key feature of the concept of social harmony in Chinese culture and one of the core values of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>Gang (刚) and rou (柔) are two mutually complementary measures. They refer to two opposite properties or qualities that objects and human beings possess. In the realm of governance, gang means being tough and stern, while rou means being soft and lenient, and the term means to combine tough management with gentle care. Gang and rou are considered to be a concrete manifestation of yin and yang. Their mutual opposition and accommodation are the causes of change. When formulating and implementing policies and decrees or managing a society or an enterprise, there must be a certain balance between gang and rou.
DETAILED>>In ancient times, commentaries and proposals were submitted by officials to emperors to discuss state affairs and offer solutions. The term yi (议 commentary) refers to an official discussion and analysis of state affairs with the emperor to air one’s views, often different from that held by the emperor and other officials, and propose solutions. The term dui (对 proposal) refers to the act of proposing strategies and answering the emperor’s questions. These two terms are discussed together in the“Commentary and Proposal” section of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. The general term “commentary and proposal” encompasses all types of official writing. According to Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties, to produce a good piece of official writing, one should have a good knowledge of ancient and current institutions as well as codes of law and major examples, identify problems, objectively and logically analyze them, and propose feasible solutions. Such writing should not be pompous in style or ignore facts. Liu Xie stressed that commentaries and proposals should be based on solid facts and result-oriented and that one who wrote them should have vision and talent. He admired those who were knowledgeable and persuasive and could solve difficult problems. His views on writing official documents are still of value today when it comes to writing government documents, academic papers and commentaries.
DETAILED>>Tong (同commonality) and yi (异difference) are opposing concepts that underpin a fundamental relationship among things. When distinct boundaries separate one thing from another, it implies that these two entities share some similarities while also showing differences in various aspects. The assessment of commonality and difference among things is crucial for their recognition and arrangement. In ancient times, many believed that things should be arranged in a rational manner according to an overall order, which was established on the basis of clear definition and accurate comprehension of the commonality and difference among things. Some others advocated acknowledging the relativity of the concepts of commonality and difference and thus breaking away from the constraints of such a relationship in the cognitive dimensions.
DETAILED>>This term means a poet uses the techniques of analogy and stimulation to depict the form and the external appearance of things. He takes in internal connotations and the principles of things, thus linking originally different things and combining them. Nirong (拟容comparing appearances) attaches importance to specific forms for bixing (比兴 analogy and stimulation). While quxin (取心 grasping the essence) aims to get at the spirit and the essence of things, it therefore attaches importance to internal connotations and to the principles contained in the form of things. The combined meaning is that by giving expression to the form of things with a certain meaning, one may imply and express his thoughts and feelings. This notion appeared in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It developed from niwu lixiang (拟物立象 create images through object imitation) in The Book of Changes. Liu Xie (465?-520) first used this term, mainly to explain that analogy and stimulation are inter-connected but are different: Analogy here means “comparing appearances.” Staying true to the principle of things is most important, and anything far-fetched should be avoided. Stimulation means “grasping the essence,” sensing the abstruse and being connected with the meaning.
DETAILED>>Conceit and complacency cause failure whereas modesty and prudence bring success. Ancient Chinese believed that all things were in constant change, and advantages might turn into disadvantages, and vice versa. One should keep pace with the times, work hard and never be complacent about what has been achieved; and one should keep a low profile, be modest, and be eager to overcome his weakness. The same applies to either an individual or a nation. This belief echoes the Chinese character of endeavoring ceaselessly for self-improvement.
A complete man refers to a person of sound moral integrity who also has command of various skills that in ancient times were needed to deal with social life. In the view of the ancient Chinese, a complete man did not just mean that a man reached adulthood. It also meant that a person had acquired sound morals and the skills required to adapt to society. A complete man needed to have wisdom, courage, and self-restraint and also to have mastered the skills necessary to appropriately deal with all types of matters in life, so that his words and deeds met the requirements of moral principles and justice.
DETAILED>>“Concealment” refers to keeping things hidden, whereas “revelation” means making things abundantly clear. As an artistic and literary term, this pair of opposites refers to a creative process in which some things need to be hidden and others abundantly clear. When applied to semantics or rhetoric, it refers to subtle or explicit modes of expression. An ideal work of art is marked by a proper balance between concealment and revelation. Understatement or hidden meaning does not mean being cryptic, but rather being profound in significance. On the other hand, plainness of wording or conspicuousness of meaning does not mean sheer transparency, but rather clarity. Generally speaking, concealment and revelation are not mutually exclusive. They are instead interchangeable and feature two-way dialectic mobility, revealing dao in constant change.
Chen Zi’ang (659-700), the early Tang Dynasty writer believed that concise and clear wording makes writings shine, and he strongly opposed excessive exposition and repeated ornamentation. He held that this would drown out the purpose of the article and that if an article’s main theme is not manifest, it would lose its appeal. This is in line with his advocacy of the prevailing literary style in the Jian’an era at the end of the Han Dynasty and the Zhengshi literary style of the final years of the State of Wei in the Three Kingdoms period. He put emphasis on expressing the theme and character of an article and he calls for a writing style whose beauty lies in its strength and clarity, as opposed to a style that was flamboyant and weak. This idea became the precursor to the literary innovation movement in the Tang Dynasty.
DETAILED>>This term means two types of imperial decrees in ancient times. Xi (檄) was an official condemnation of the enemy and an official rallying call to fight, whereas yi (移) was an admonition released to the public to advise people against improper speech and behavior. As Liu Xie (465?-520) remarked in his literary critique The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, an imperial decree of condemnation was written to list atrocities committed by the enemy, boost soldiers' morale, win popular support and demoralize enemy troops. Therefore, it was compelling and forceful, and well-articulated, supported by ample reasoning and proofs. Where necessary, overstatement, exaggeration or even deceitful wording can be employed in such a decree. An admonition, on the other hand, was written to expose problems or vices inside the empire, alert the public to their harmful effects and demand their timely rectification. Because an admonition was issued to one's own subjects, it should be more compassionate and lenient in tone. An admonition should be factual, without pomposity or fanfare. It should get right to the heart of a problem rather than beating about the bush or even concealing the truth. A condemnation and an admonition share one thing in common: they were stern in denouncing evildoing and malpractices.
DETAILED>>This term originally means awarding those who deserve it, and punishing those who must be punished. Later on it was used to mean that one must be strict, fair, and transparent in governance. Ancient Chinese believed that honors and punishments were important principles and methods in governing a state or an army. These measures can play an exemplary role. The purpose of giving award is to encourage people to do good things, and the purpose of meting out punishment is to bring wrongdoers to justice. Awards and punishments encourage people to follow the rules, and are used to distinguish merit from error and good from bad. When applied properly, awards and punishments avoid favoritism and partiality and urge people to better themselves.
DETAILED>>This term means conforming to the superior in applying standards for right and wrong. It is one of the basic positions of the Mohist school. Mozi （468？-376 BC) believed that in the absence of a state and political power, confusion over right and wrong would give rise to conflict and fighting, causing harm to the antagonists. Therefore, he held that worthy and talented men should be the Son of Heaven and his officials at various levels. Everyone should adopt their superior’s standards for judging right and wrong in words and deeds, and ultimately follow the ruler’s standards. The sovereign ruler himself should submit to Heaven’s will. The Mohists believed that conforming upwardly was an important means to ensure great order under heaven.
DETAILED>>Jing (经),which means the constant, and quan (权), which means the temporary, are terms used in the historical discourse of Chinese philosophy referring to a pair of philosophical concepts concerning the permanent and temporarily changing aspects of dao. The constant is the normal manifestation of human relations and daily life. It is thus the normal way that should be observed. It has normative functions and significance. The temporary means a change of the function of dao to suit circumstances or to meet needs of the day. In special circumstances, to follow the constant may result in deviation from dao. When this happens, a flexible way, that is, the temporary, may be adopted. The temporary seems to deviate from dao, but it actually conforms to requirements of dao in a flexible manner. The application of the constant or the temporary in different circumstances is determined by one’s keen understanding and mastery of dao.
DETAILED>>It refers to the constant nature or regular pattern of natural laws. The ancient Chinese believed that phenomena in the universe and life in human society are governed by constant laws in their movement. People characterize these laws as being "constant" and sometimes call them "constant ways" or "constant principles." "Constant" is in contrast to "change," but it is also closely connected with "change." Given that these are the natural laws or patterns that phenomena follow, they are stable and unchangeable. But these constant natural laws are manifested through myriad changing things. It is by learning about continuous changes that people seek to identify and comprehend underlying constant laws or principles.
DETAILED>>This term refers to an ongoing process of self-renewal, which also brings new life to the people, society, and the nation. This process features continuous progress and improvement. It represents a tenacious and innovative spirit that permeates all levels of “self-cultivation, family regulation, state governance, bringing peace to all under heaven.”
DETAILED>>This term encapsulates an age-old Chinese belief, rooted in the value of collective wisdom, which advocates extensive consultation with the public on important issues in governance. As stated in the ancient Chinese classic, The Book of History, when addressing important issues in governance, a ruler should not make decision purely by himself. Instead, he should take a more inclusive approach to decision-making. A ruler should not only give full consideration to the issue involved himself, he should also consult with advisors and the public at large. This approach would help ensure that the decision made represented the consensus of wider society and was therefore rational and enforceable. This concept, viewed in the context of modern times, is seen as representing an early emerging value of democracy in China’s political history. Sometimes this concept is also used to refer to the process of decision-making that occurs within the lower house in the two-house parliamentary system in the West.
DETAILED>>In Buddhist scriptures, “consummate interfusion” has two meanings: (1) the original state of all things, which are interfused with and governed by each other, and (2) a viewpoint on truth that argues against adherence to any judgment. The Tiantai School interprets “consummate interfusion” in this way: it develops the concept of satyadvaya (the two truths) into “the three levels of truth”– the empty truth, the false truth, and the middle-way truth. According to this theory, one shall neither descend into nor detach oneself from the two extremes: emptiness and existence. Such non-duality demonstrates the nature of consummate interfusion. The Huayan School offers another interpretation with “the consummate interfusion of six aspects.” It argues that all things can be judged from six aspects: the general, the particular, the identity, the differentiated, the integrated, and the destructive aspect. Although they appear as three opposites, these aspects, consubstantial with one another, transcend conceptual opposition.
DETAILED>>This term refers to literary descriptions of characters which are accurate both in form and in spirit. Chuanshen (传神), to “convey the spirit,” is to fully express the spiritual world within the character, so that he comes to life; xiezhao (写照), to “capture the person,” is to create a vivid physical depiction of him. These expressions were originally used in discussions of art but were later introduced into literature. They represent an artistic state which artists and writers try to achieve as they create images of people as well as all artistic images.
DETAILED>>As opposed to wuxing (无形 incorporeal), youxing (有形) literally means“corporeal”or“existing in a physical form.”Forms, which are measured by size, length, weight, and so forth, help to differentiate one thing from another. The measurements of the corporeal serve as reference points for nomenclature. In ancient times, some people believed that the generation and changing of the corporeal relied upon incorporeal nature or origin, while others believed in the self-generation of the corporeal and rejected the existence of an incorporeal nature or origin.
DETAILED>>In ancient days, this term had two meanings. One, it referred to correctness or orthodoxy, specifically in the interpretation of ancient classics. The term was often used as part of a book title, such as Correct Meaning of The Book of Changes and Correct Meaning of Mao’s Annotations on The Book of Songs. Two, it referred to principles of justice that were universally accepted and righteous. In modern times, the second meaning has prevailed. Today, it has become one of the core values of the Chinese society.
The basic meaning of yong (勇) is courage, which is a virtue. When necessary, a courageous person is expected to fearlessly stop any act that violates ethical principles without giving any consideration to his own personal interests. Acts of courage must be based upon recognition and observance of ethical and social norms. Otherwise, such acts may become ruthless, brutal and risky, and cause social chaos.
DETAILED>>Courage lies in weakness or retreating, in bravely choosing not to venture into doing something. This exemplifies the wisdom in Laozi’s concepts of “weakness” and “non-action.” According to Laozi, it is dangerous to always push ahead stubbornly. One should advance when advancing is appropriate and retreat when retreating is appropriate. True courage is demonstrated not only in daring to do something, but even more so by not venturing into doing something. One must not only do, but also refrain from doing something rashly. This is a reminder that there are things that one must respect and obey. One should be brave enough to retreat and to refrain from doing something which violates rules, tramples on principles and disrupts norms. This applies to matters as minor as getting along with others and as big as governing a country.
DETAILED>>This term means court calculation on major military and state affairs. The imperial court here refers to the place for officials to deliberate on affairs of state in ancient China. The purpose of calculation prior to war was to work out a strategy based on the state’s strengths and weaknesses. Sunzi’s view was that war was not merely a contest on the battlefield, but was also influenced by political, economic and other factors. Court calculation thus had to take into account different war scenarios and review a full range of circumstances in the state. Court calculation was a necessary preparation for war.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to literary geniuses creating timeless works of greatness and originality through meticulous honing of form and content. This phrase was used by Southern Dynasties literary critic Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons to give his heartfelt high praise of the works of Chuci (or odes of Chu) style created by Qu Yuan (340?-278? BC). Liu Xie emphasized the importance of following the classics, but at the same time, he also advocated for variations, pointing out that literary works needed constant innovation in both content and form. Works of Chuci style, represented by “Lisao,”were such masterpieces of literature that brought about completely new changes while following the tradition of The Book of Songs. Intense emotional catharsis and individual expressions break the gentle and refined traditional poetic style, which lead to unprecedentedly unusual themes and wild, totally uninhibited imaginations. They also developed free and varied sentence patterns, often using the auxiliary word xi (兮) at the end to highlight deep worries and lamentations from the heart, thus enforcing rhythm, breath and the lyrical functions of such modal particles. Qu Yuan, a literary genius, not only originated this new form and pattern of artistic rendition, but also inspired later writers to fully understand the significance of implementing changes and to be more creative in writing.
DETAILED>>This term has a two-fold meaning. First, it refers to any work that offers commentaries on ci poets, poems, schools of ci poetry, the gist of a ci poem and textual criticisms. This type of work is a constituent part of scholarly inquiry into classical Chinese poetry. Criticism on ci poetry, with relatively long lines interspersed with shorter ones, are derived from criticism on the more usual type of classic Chinese poetry with a fixed number of characters to a line. They proliferated in the Northern Song Dynasty and matured in the Southern Song Dynasty. Famed works of ci poetry appreciation include Remarks on Ci Poetry from White Rain Studio by Chen Tingzhuo (1853-1892) and Poetic Remarks in the Human World by Wang Guowei (1877-1927), both from the Qing Dynasty. The latter work, written after Wang Guowei was influenced by Western aesthetic theories, and fusing Chinese and Western aesthetic thoughts together, was a criticism work on Chinese ci poets and ci poems made from a brand-new perspective. Although superficially it imitates the traditional way of offering commentaries on shi poetry and ci poetry, it in fact already attempts to construct a theoretic system. It has remained the most influential work of literary criticism since the late-Qing period.
Second, the term cihua also refers to an art of theatrical performance combining narratives and songs popular in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, in which the ci part is the singing of rhymed verse. As in Tales of Prince Qin of the Great Tang Dynasty, the performance intersperses singing with narrative, and verse with prose. It was developed from the performance of story-telling with speech and song of the Song Dynasty. After the mid-Ming Dynasty, such performances started to adopt two new terms: tanci (弹词), or story-telling with the accompaniment of musical instruments such as the Chinese lute, and guci (鼓词), or story-telling aided by a drum and clapper. Still later, these two new terms superseded the old. From the last years of the Ming to the first years of the Qing, this term was sometimes also used to refer to a popular novel with each chapter headed by a couplet giving the gist of its content which was interspersed with beautiful verse, for example Tales of the Golden Lotus.
This term has a two-fold meaning. First, it refers to any work that contains critiques or commentaries on poets, poems, schools of poetry, anecdotes about poets, and textual research. This type of work is a constituent part of scholarly inquiry into classical Chinese poetry. The tradition of offering commentaries on poetry had its origin in “The Critique of Poetry” by Zhong Rong (?-518?) of the Liang Period of the Southern Dynasties. The first somewhat complete commentary on poetry and poets was Ouyang Xiu’s Criticism of Poetry, by Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) of the Northern Song Dynasty. The Song Dynasty’s most renowned work of poetry commentary, which also had the greatest influence on scholars of later generations, was Canglang’s Criticism on Poetry by Yan Yu (?-1264) of the Southern Song Dynasty. After that, notes of this kind became a principal medium through which to offer commentaries on poetry and propose theories of poetry composition. The Ming and Qing dynasties boasted the largest number of works of poetry commentary. The best of such works were Desultory Remarks on Poetry from Ginger Studio by Wang Fuzhi (1619-1692) and Suiyuan Remarks on Poetry by Yuan Mei (1716-1798), both from the Qing Dynasty. During the Ming and Qing periods, Commentaries on Poetry from Past Dynasties, A Sequel to Commentaries on Poetry from Past Dynasties and Qing Dynasty Commentaries on Poetry were also published, all of which contain important works of poetry critiquing of all dynasties. Commentaries/critiques on poetry essentially shun a comprehensive and elaborate theoretical system and focus instead on articulating the critic’s personal, nuanced appreciation and evaluation of poetry. Each of them contains only a few terse remarks, airing views on finer points in poetic composition and revealing personal feelings and thoughts on rules governing artistic creation. Commentaries on poetry are themselves highly literary and deserve to be appreciated from that perspective. Such commentaries on poetry, with their distinctly Chinese cultural features, distinguish themselves from Western scholars’ obsession with systematic construction of literary theories and strictly scientific modes of expression.
Second, the term shihua may also refer to a kind of age-old art of theatrical performance that intersperse singing with narrative, and verse with prose. Rhymed verse, which normally consists of seven characters to a line, is employed for singing. Prose, on the other hand, is used as in vernacular speech. The earliest extant work of this kind is Tales of Xuanzang’s Journey to the West compiled and published during the Song and Yuan periods.
One way to confirm whether one’s assessments and opinions are correct is to verify them through observation and comparison. The method of cross- checking and verification was frequently mentioned in the pre-Qin period. Hanfeizi (280?-233 BC) expounded this method in detail. He believed that to determine whether something was correct or not, it was necessary to compare, check, and verify from various perspectives: from heaven, earth, objects, and human beings. In using this method, one should focus on the practical effects of assessments and opinions. Only such assessments and opinions that can be proven to produce real effects through comparison, cross-checking, and verification are correct. To blindly confirm something without cross-checking and verification is foolish.
DETAILED>>This expression originally denotes an observation that when objects lose their balance, they make sounds. Figuratively, it means that an ill-treated person will make sounds of protest and complaint. Han Yu (768-824), a famous writer in the Tang Dynasty, used the phrase to point out that writers will be driven to write when the outside world invokes in them feelings of injustice. Feelings like this compel writers to expose injustices through literature. This theory is a continuation and development of Confucius’ (551-479 BC) “Poetry can address
grievance” and the Grand Historian Sima Qian’s (145 or 135? -? BC)
“Indignation spurs one to write great works.” Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) in the Northern Song Dynasty further proposes “A good poem is the product of pent-up emotions.” He believes that only when a poet is trapped in a difficult and even perilous position with pent-up anger and frustration will he be able to compose quality poems.
This means one’s innate quality can be cultivated and shown through one’s appearance. It originated in the Chinese classic Mencius. Mencius (372?-289BC), an ancient Chinese thinker, believed that a person’s physical appearance embodies his innate quality. However, the physical appearance of many people fails to give expression to their innate quality. Only a sage can see and make use of such quality and demonstrate it through physical appearance, enabling the physical appearance to perform its due function.
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“Cultivating oneself” means taking pains to elevate one’s talent and virtue constantly to achieve perfection, thus inwardly becoming a sage. “Benefiting others” means displaying one’s own talent and virtue to make contributions to society and benefit others, thus outwardly becoming a person like a king. This was what Confucius（551-479 BC） meant by a “man of virtue” and is also a simple expression of the Confucian school’s notion of rule by virtue.
This concept stresses the civilizing role of music. Rites and music are means that everyone should often use to regulate their conduct and for introspection. When one grasps the essence of music, one will naturally follow the nature of music – harmony deep inside. Then personality traits associated with harmony, such as geniality, integrity, kindness, and honesty, will come forward, and fill one’s heart with happiness. When one is truly happy, one will strive to retain it. Long cultivated thus, one can resemble heaven, who speaks no words but never lets people down, or act like gods, who do not rage but are held in awe.
DETAILED>>Those in power should cultivate their own virtue, thus improving their moral character, conduct government affairs according to moral principles, and arrange for the people to live in peace. Strengthening the army means enhancing military might through training and discipline. However, the aim is not to threaten others with overwhelming might to obtain advantages but to maintain sufficient strength under moral standards to safeguard social stability and the interests of the people, using armed strength in a reasonable way on the basis of “cultivating virtue.”
DETAILED>>Cursive script, also known as running hand, is a particular style of Chinese calligraphy. It went through four stages of development: cursive clerical, semi-cursive, regular cursive and wild cursive. It began in the Han Dynasty, aiming to facilitate handwriting and increase efficiency. The first popular form of cursive script was cursive clerical. Later, calligraphers added or subtracted the number of strokes to turn the cursive clerical into semi-cursive. Toward the end of the Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhi (?-192?) allegedly rid semi-cursive script of cursive clerical vestiges, linking the final strokes of the character above with the beginning stroke of the following character, eliminating certain radicals and borrowing strokes from neighboring parts to form regular cursive script (commonly known as “cursive hand” today). During the Tang Dynasty, Zhang Xu and Huaisu (725-785, or maybe 737-799), regarded as master calligraphers of the cursive style, gave full expression of their feelings and thoughts, and wrote their characters in a freer and more uninhibited manner. Their execution of strokes featured continuous stretches, gracefully circular movement, flowing contours, amazingly bold combinations of characters and a wide variety of patterns, leading to the emergence of “wild” cursive script. People of later generations also called the latter “great cursive” as opposed to “small cursive,” which in fact referred to regular cursive.
DETAILED>>This concept represents the four artisanal techniques applied to various materials. Qie (切) signifies crafting animal bones, cuo (磋)indicates refining ivory objects, zhuo (琢) alludes to shaping jade, and mo (磨) pertains to grinding stone materials. In antiquity, people used animal bones, ivory, and diverse types of stones to create objects. These raw materials required the process of “cutting, polishing, carving, and grinding” to transform into refined items. Starting from The Book of Songs, the ancients used the processes of object crafting as metaphors for moral and intellectual cultivation. They believed that individuals also needed to undergo mutual “cutting, polishing, carving, and grinding” to attain deep knowledge and virtuous character.
DETAILED>>In its original meaning, dao (道) is the way or path taken by people. It has three extended meanings: 1) the general laws followed by things in different spheres, e.g. the natural order by which the sun, moon and stars move is called the way of heaven; the rules that govern human activities are the way of man; 2) the universal patterns followed by all things and beings; and 3) the original source or ontological existence of things, which transcends form and constitutes the basis for the birth and existence of all things, and for the activities of human beings. In their respective discussions of Dao, Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism imbue it with very different connotations. While benevolence, righteousness, social norms, and music education form the basic content of the Confucian Dao, the Buddhist and Daoist Dao tends to emphasize kong (空 emptiness) and wu (无 void).
DETAILED>>This concept means generally applicable principles and tangible concrete objects, which are an important pair of concepts in ancient Chinese philosophy. Dao is invisible, concealed and metaphysical, while objects are tangible, visible and physical. The former represents unity of things, while the latter demonstrates diversity of things. However, the two are not diametrically opposed to each other. Rather, they are inherently in unity in that the former is the abstraction of the latter, while the latter is the concrete manifestation of the former, and the two have a relationship of dialectical unity.
DETAILED>>This is a saying of Hanfeizi (280?-233BC), who took the Daoist binary relation between Dao (the Way) and wu (物 the thing) and developed it into a ternary relation with an addition of li (理 pattern). He believed that li describes the attributes and principles of each and every thing in the world in terms of length, size, shape, solidity, weight, color, and so forth, and thus differentiates one thing from another. Dao, the fundamental law, generates all the things and encompasses their patterns.
DETAILED>>The term has both broad and narrow meanings. Interpreted narrowly, it means various painting techniques. Interpreted broadly, it means the cultural values, personality, artistic style, and aesthetic aspiration embodied in a painting, suggesting a perfect fusion of Dao and skills. Dao determines the theme a painting conveys as well as the painting’s artistic principles and aesthetic style. A painting is a concrete image that illustrates Dao. It reflects the cultural principles followed by the painter as well as his personality, artistic style, and aesthetic aspiration. Therefore, paintings illuminate Dao, which in turn enhances the paintings. Prominent painters seek to access Dao through refining their skills and epitomizing Dao in artwork. The Dao of painting not only encompasses the Dao of nature, but also the Dao of social life, demonstrating the commitment to humanism inherent in the Chinese culture.
DETAILED>>Dao operates in accordance with natural conditions of all things. This idea first appeared in the book Laozi, according to which “natural” means the natural state of things. Dao creates and nurtures everything, yet it does not command anything. In political philosophy, the relationship between Dao and natural things implies that between the ruler and the people. The rulers should follow the natural requirements of Dao, which places limits on their power, and govern by means of non-interference to allow the people and affairs to take their own natural course.
DETAILED>>The character bian (辩) denotes debate. The Warring States Period witnessed the contentions of the Hundred Schools of Thought. On this philosophical battlefield, theorists from rival schools participated in debates over numerous subjects or theses and overtime they began to consider debate as a philosophical subject. Some thinkers, especially the later Mohist scholars and Xunzi (313?-238 BC), discussed the significance, principles, and methods of debate. Some others, however, treated it critically or with reservation. Mencius (372?-289BC), for one, said he would resort to debate only when he had no other choice. The Daoists, for another, spoke out against debate.
DETAILED>>The term has two meanings. First, it refers to all measures for governing a country. Zheng (政) stands for decrees, rules, and ordinances, and zhi (治) refers to their implementation, that is, the way in which the people are governed. Second, it refers to a state of stable and sound governance of the country, with an efficient and clean government, a prosperous economy, and a peaceful society. In modern times, the term is used in the sense of “politics,” as it refers to policies, measures, and actions that governments, political parties, social groups, or individuals adopt in domestic or international affairs.
DETAILED>>Delivering a wide range of benefits to the people and relieving the suffering of the poor is crucial for good governance. It requires that a ruler must treat his subjects with benevolence, be responsive to people’s needs and their difficulties and bring extensive benefits to them. Such a ruler deserves to be called a sage.
DETAILED>>Opposition to unjust warfare is one of the basic concepts in the Mohist School of thought. It regards immoral and aggressive wars as acutely harmful to society. Not only does the country being attacked suffer great damage, the people of the country that starts the war also suffer serious casualties and property losses. Therefore, Mohists held that unjust wars should be prohibited. They took specific measures to prevent aggressive wars between nations, and conducted research into defensive tactics and armaments.
DETAILED>>This term is used to describe varying degrees of denseness with regard to color, smell or taste. In the fields of art and literature, it refers to the denseness or lightness of a painting’s color, ornateness or plainness of literary language, boldness or restraint in artistic style, or to directness or opaqueness of emotional expression. Denseness and lightness are relative to each other. In traditional Chinese painting, for example, the colors chosen can either be dense or light, but they should not be so dense as to be crude or so light as to be insipid. Ink wash painting pays particular attention to the denseness or lightness of color, aiming to achieve a balance between the two. This implies a harmony between the bright and the shady, the front and the rear views, the tangible and the intangible, density and sparsity, and the long- and short-range views. An ideal painting expects denser and lighter hues to set each other off beautifully. This requirement applies also to other genres of art.
DETAILED>>The concept first appears in Zhuangzi. According to Zhuangzi (369?–286 BC), people and things cannot exist independently of their context, and thus are always limited and constrained by various external conditions, that is, they depend on something. But since the human mind is able to transcend the reality of its context and is not bound by external things, it can thus achieve a free and unhindered state. This is the state of the mind having nothing to depend on.
DETAILED>>The term is a translation of the Sanskrit word pratītyasamutpāda. Yuan (缘) means conditions; qi (起) means origination. That is to say, all things, phenomena, and social activities arise out of the combinations of causes and conditions. They exist in the continuous relationship between causes and conditions. Thus all things originate, change, and demise depending upon certain conditions. Dependent origination is the fountainhead of Buddhist thought and forms the common theoretical basis for all Buddhist schools and sects. Buddhism uses this concept to explain everything in the universe, the constant changes of social and spiritual phenomena, and the internal laws of origination, change, and demise.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the act of depicting the outward features of an object to convey its innate character in literary writing. It stresses the need not only to reproduce in words whatever appears before one’s eyes but also to capture it with one’s soul, thus achieving a close communion with the object depicted. The point is to bring out the hidden impact and spirit of things, or to express a profound feeling toward them. Only thus can an excellent work of art be produced.
Depicting sorrowful scenery to express happiness is a technique which integrates sentiment and scenery and indirectly expresses sentiment through describing scenery. Although it is quite common to express sadness through joyful scenes, artists rarely describe sorrowful scenery to express joy. Thus, we can better understand the latter technique by comparing it with the former. Both are techniques of expressing sentiment implicitly by describing scenery. Sentiment and scenery set each other off beautifully and are well integrated, thus giving works an aesthetic elegance and a unique and lingering charm.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the yearning for external objects. Yu(欲) is the desire for external things such as food and beauty. This desire is a natural instinct，so it should be satisfied to an appropriate degree and be restrained at the same time. Excessive desire can be harmful to a person, create disputes between people and cause disorder. Desire also refers to the pursuit of virtue, something that is inherent part of human instinct.
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This term refers to the rule of a state by means of force and power as opposed to “benevolent governance.” The ruling court of the Zhou Dynasty began to decline in the Spring and Autumn Period while some of its vassal states grew stronger. Some state rulers, who were dukes or princes, began to maintain the social order by manipulating the throne and other state rulers. Some emerged as the more powerful among other states. Their governing principles and policies were regarded as despotic governance. In their governance, they valued benefits and power instead of benevolence and moral principles. They ruled by brutal force instead of by the force of morality; they governed by coercion instead of moral suasion. They ignored ethics and made people live in fear. All they cared for was the benefits to their own states. Such practices went against the philosophy of the Chinese nation that has all along upheld peace and harmony, not force. Since ancient times, China has valued benevolent governance, and rejected despotic rule. This is the historical and cultural foundation of the Chinese notion of opposing hegemony and power politics.
DETAILED>>This concept originated in The Book of Rites and Xunzi. Confucianism believes that human feelings need to be properly expressed. However, there are significant differences in the degree of human feelings. Rules should be established to govern the expression of human feelings based on a full understanding of their differences; and the rules for expressing people’s feelings should be developed on the basis of a moderate degree of these feelings.
DETAILED>>Dharmakāya refers to the corpus of the Buddha’s teachings. The word shen (身 body) means
collection in this context. The multifaceted nature of the Buddha inspires the idea
of “two bodies,” “three bodies,” and even “ten bodies.” Among them, rūpakāya (the body of form or the
begotten body) refers to the physical dimension of the Buddha, which features
earthliness; dharmakāya (the body of
dharma) refers to the collection of invisible wisdom, highlighting the inherent
nature of the Buddha; and nirmāṇakāya (the
body of transformation) refers to the doubles of the Buddha who is able to
teach the dharma by all means to all sentient beings. Buddhist interpretations on dharmakāya vary from school to school,
but all of them emphasize its perfect purity and endless functions.
This term means that the description and language used in poetry should be direct and straight forward rather than implied. Here, zhi (致) means reaching to something. The origin of this term may be traced to the concept of direct search first proposed by Zhong Rong (?-518?) of the Southern Dynasties. He disapproved of the excessive use of allegories in some poems, maintaining that a poem could only be written when a poet was inspired by external objects. Whether describing scenery or expressing his thoughts, the poet should present his sentiments with vivid writing while avoiding the use of rhetoric. Yin Fan, a Tang Dynasty critic of poetry who followed Zhong Rong’s view, put forward the term “direct expression,” believing that one should use simple, clear and vivid language to describe both scenery and his sentiment.
DETAILED>>A poet should directly express his thoughts and sentiments when he is inspired. This is a concept for writing poems proposed by poetry critic Zhong Rong （？-518？）of the Southern Dynasties in his work The Critique of Poetry as a reaction to the excessive use of allusions and quotes from earlier works. Inspired by naturalist ideas of Daoism and by his own reading of the fine works of earlier poets, he developed a new form of poetic creation which he named “direct quest.” By this, he meant directly describing matters that one senses and learns about, directly expressing one’s inner feelings, and creating aesthetic images in which the sensibilities match up with current realities. The theory of inner self used in Ming- and Qing-dynasty poetics was influenced by this idea.
DETAILED>>This term encapsulates the notion of the cyclical disappearance and reappearance of things or states. Primarily, “disappearance and reappearance” signifies the cycle of departure and return pertaining to a journey. Ancient Chinese scholars expanded upon this concept, applying it abstractly to represent the dual mechanisms of transformation in things or states of things. Here, wang (往) symbolizes disappearance and fu (复) stands for reappearance. The processes of disappearance and reappearance in things or states of things can be contradictory or alternate cyclically. Fully understanding the process of “disappearance and reappearance” and adapting to these transformations is vital to success.
DETAILED>>This term means to discern the true meaning of statements. This concept is mentioned in early Confucian classics such as The Analects and Mencius. Confucianism regarded statements as the vehicle through which people express themselves and communicate with others. However, for various reasons, statements often cannot accurately, faithfully or fully convey the true meaning that was intended to convey. Hence Confucianism emphasized the need to discern statements to find out why they deviated from the true meaning and further explore it.
DETAILED>>This term means to ascertain the similarities and differences between things by classifying them. This phrase originated in The Book of Changes, which regarded everything in the world as belonging to different categories, and those with similar features being in the same group. Thus, one can tell the similarities and differences of things by grouping those that have common features. This concept also alerts people that they should be careful in interacting with people and should stick to like-minded people and those with moral integrity.
DETAILED>>“Disharmony” here means an insincere articulation of feeling or an unnatural depiction of scenery. This happens when there is a lack of complete blend of feeling and scenery, causing readers to feel at odds, or unable to identify, with what they are reading. “Harmony,” on the other hand, means a true expression of feeling or a natural depiction of scenery, creating an aesthetic feeling of “being right there to witness.” This pair of contrasting terms was first used by Wang Guowei (1877-1927) in his critical work Poetic Remarks in the Human World, where he combines the appreciation of natural beauty and the emphasis on the reading experience favored by ancient China's literati along with the influence of Western notions of artistic intuition. Intuition relates to artistic experience and psychological habit, and discussion of this pair of opposites shows the convergence of Chinese and Western literary aesthetic thought.
DETAILED>>Poets should not concern themselves with theory, logic or any other convention in the use of language. Quan (筌), originally a bamboo fish-catching device, later was used as a metaphor for any form of linguistic constraint on poetic creation. The term “language trap” was first put forward by the Song Dynasty poetry theorist Yan Yu （？-1264）in his Canglang's Criticism on Poetry, a work on poetry learning and creation. It can be likened to the idea of “subtle insight.” Poetry writing has its distinct ways of thinking and aesthetic requirements. Essentially, it should express the poet's emotions and mood, and emphasize momentary feeling, rather than expound on theories or show off one's learning. Poetry learners should also avoid being shackled by theories or conventions in language use.
This happens when artists do not aim deliberately for virtual replica in form between works of art and the objects depicted but make every effort to achieve a resemblance in spirit. This is also known as "dissimilar in form but similar in spirit." The Chinese theory of painting in the Tang, Song and Yuan dynasties emphasizes resemblance in spirit over similarity in form. The artistic elite represented by Shi Tao (1641-1718?) in the Ming Dynasty objected to both the idea that the artist should emphasize a profound artistic ambience at the expense of formal resemblance, and the idea that the artist's sole duty is to blindly imitate the form. They believe that an ideal work of art is both “dissimilar and yet similar at the same time.” “Dissimilar” means that an artist should paint with free will, discarding outdated practices, and not excessively pursuing resemblance in form. “Similar” means that painting should be based on true life and artists should strive for similarity in spirit. This principle of allowing for dissimilar form in quest of similar spirit strikes an ingenious balance between artistic reality and the reality of daily life.
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A distinct name is used for a particular category or a certain object. It is used by Xunzi (313?-238 BC) in contrast with “general name.” A name should denote the nature of a thing. Things in the same category that have unique features can be referred to by “distinct names.” Subsets within that category with further characteristics of their own can in turn have a higher-level “distinct name.” A distinct name with the broadest reference is called “broad distinct name.”
This term refers to a world outlook and a way of thinking which hold that heaven and man are different. This explanation was first put forward by Xunzi（313？-238 BC）, who did not believe that human morality and the order of human society emanated from heaven. He argued that heaven and man each had a different role and that they should not be mixed. Temporal changes of heaven and earth as well as the occurrence of seasonal changes in temperature and rainfall all belonged to the domain of heaven. They had their normal path, unrelated to human affairs, and were beyond the reach of human power. On the other hand, man’s morality and order in the world belonged to the realm of man. People should be responsible for moral development and social order. Only by making a clear distinction between heaven and man could one develop his abilities on the basis established by heaven, without overstepping into a domain where man was unable to exert his power.
DETAILED>>Also “spontaneity and distinctiveness.” Biaoju (标举) originally meant “to mark out or stand out.” It later extended to mean “superior, unique, distinctive, and outstanding.” Hui (会) means “to get together.” Xinghui (兴会) refers to one’s passionate creative state and rich perceptions sparked by an object, and keen, naturally-inspired interest and charm in literary creation. The term, as a whole, indicates distinctive, spontaneous perceptions and emotions in literary creation, and intense interest and charm possessed by literary work. It is both a term of literary criticism and a concept of literary creation. Opposing false sentimentality, the term holds in esteem spontaneity, writers' talents and enthusiasm, and emphasizes free imagination based on intuition and free creation in a state of bursting inspirations.
DETAILED>>Do away with the old and set up the new. Ge (革) and ding (鼎) are two trigrams in The Book of Changes. In Commentary on The Book of Changes, it is explained that the lower ge trigram symbolizes fire and the upper ge trigram symbolizes water. Since fire and water are opposed and in conflict, and they cannot keep an original state of equilibrium, changes are bound to occur. Consequently, the ge trigram implies change of an unsuitable old state of affairs. The lower ding trigram symbolizes wood and the upper ding trigram symbolizes fire. When people throw the wood into the fire, they can cook their food in a ding. Thus, the ding trigram signifies the creation of new things. Following the doctrine in Commentary on The Book of Changes, later people combined the two together to represent an outlook advocating changes.
DETAILED>>Do not impose on others what you do not want yourself. That is the “way of being considerate” advocated by Confucius（551-479 BC）. It calls for using one’s own mind to infer and understand other people’s minds. In today’s words, it means to put oneself into others’ shoes or to think from their positions. Its philosophical basis lies in the similarity of people’s basic natures. It is an important principle put forth by Confucians to govern inter-personal relationships, and is now extended to international relationship management to counter power politics. Its essential elements are benevolence, equality, and tolerance.
DETAILED>>People should behave according to their own position and situation. This expression is said to originate in The Doctrine of the Mean. People in different circumstances have different duties to perform and different rules to observe. They can give play to their innate morality by proper performance of their duties. Therefore, people should not be motivated by external gain to pursue the status enjoyed by others; rather, they should be content with their own life and tap their full potential given the situation in which they find themselves.
This term has two meanings. One refers to script in general inscribed on bamboo or wooden slips. The other refers to documentary proofs, particularly proof of property ownership inscribed on bamboo or wooden slips before paper was invented. Various activities and matters were recorded on the front side. A number of tooth-like marks were carved on one side. There are usually two copies of the document, each held by one of the two parties concerned for future re-verification. After the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, script inscribed on bamboo or wooden slips gradually fell into disuse, whereas documents of proof carved on the same medium continued to be used.
DETAILED>>According to this precept, in pursuing artistic creation, one needs to draw inspiration from all things in nature and his innermost thoughts. Zaohua (造化) means nature. Xinyuan (心源) is a Buddhist term, meaning that the true awakening of one’s mind is the root of all Buddhist teaching. This view, originally described by the Tang Dynasty painter Zhang Zao, was quoted later by the Tang Dynasty author Zhang Yanyuan in his Famous Paintings Through History. It originally was a principle governing the painting of landscapes. It aimed to achieve both verisimilitude and ephemeralness and convey the subtle nuances of mountains, rivers, lakes, trees, and rocks in real life by carefully observing their true grains, shapes, and colors. The painter was encouraged to experience their beauty with his heart and capture it in a painting. “Nature” and “inspiration from within” are complementary rather than confrontational – they have a relationship of unity rather than opposition. Tang Dynasty essays about poetry, too, referred to the “soul” and “inspiration from within.” Descriptions of poetry writing were not very different from Zhang Zao’s interpretation of the process of painting. Classical Chinese prose and poetry are similar to painting in that they stress the importance of molding different physical images into an aesthetic whole. They value the charm of a literary work, fusing outer nature and inner thought.
This term refers to the way an author may be motivated to have creative thoughts at the sight of natural objects or other things. The imagery in his work is thus constituted. Xing (兴) here refers to the mental capacity to produce an emotional response to an external object, either because the author feels a certain emotion or interest inspired by the external object, or because the external object has become a vehicle for carrying the author’s existing emotion awakened by the imagery. The former is equivalent to the mental projection effect of the subject onto the object, while the latter is the object calling and guiding the subject into empathic experience. Natural objects, objects in literary and artistic works and indeed all objects are capable of arousing emotion and feelings. In his book The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties used the concept “draw inspiration from external objects” as a summary of the characteristics of the lyrical works of the Han Dynasty in the style of xiaofu (小赋) and as a description of the aesthetic effects and writing requirements of general lyrical works.
DETAILED>>Literally, this term means that a person who is able to find a teacher and is eager to learn may become a king. It indicates that a modest person who is eager to learn from others may accomplish great feats. King originally refers to the one who holds the supreme power of a nation, but it can also refer to a person who has made tremendous achievements and realized a great goal. This term has two conceptions. First, a person with the supreme power of a nation must not lord it over others, thinking he is always right; instead he should be modest, and be courteous to the worthy people. Thus he will win the people’s support and accomplish great achievements. Second, only when a person is modest and eager to learn from others, will he be able to broaden his knowledge, improve himself, and eventually become a person of great strength.
DETAILED>>The term "ease and simplicity" comes from the first half of Xi Ci（“The Great Treatise”), a chapter in The Book of Changes. Xi Ci holds that the law of the universe as embodied by heaven and earth is one of ease and simplicity. Therefore, it encompasses everything, and is easy to understand and follow. Later, some scholars championed the way of "ease and simplicity" as a necessary quality for rulers. They emphasized that government policies should be easy to understand and simple and that the government should refrain from excessive intervention in people's affairs. Other scholars stress, as a matter of self-cultivation, the necessity to use the way of ease and simplicity to discover and realize one's true self and cultivate a sense of morality in oneself.
DETAILED>>Jieyong (节用) means economy, or frugality of usage. Jieyong is an attitude regarding material property; that is, using property sparingly and reducing its unnecessary consumption. This term was often used to point out that those in government should not abuse the powers of their office to seize wealth from the people to meet their own needs or for extravagances. Jieyong in those who govern is a manifestation of their care and concern for their people. Different schools of thought like the Confucians and the Mohists all advocated jieyong, but they had different views about its criteria and scope.
DETAILED>>Education can and must be provided for all. It eliminates the differences in social status and wealth. (Another explanation is that education should be provided to students without discrimination on the basis of social status or wealth.) Education consists of teaching of social norms, music, and moral principles. A non-discriminatory approach to education means making no distinction between students based on their social status, wealth, mental capability, moral character, geographic location, or ethnicity. Transcending differences in social status, geography, and ethnicity, education for all without discrimination is a humanistic ideal that champions equal treatment of all people and rejects all forms of discrimination.
DETAILED>>Here “first” expresses both the importance and priority of education. A summary of ancient works on this subject argued that education’s meanings include: nurturing individuals and their talents; forming good social mores; developing the country and its effective governance; discovering the inherent principles of things and making full use of their attributes in order to fulfill tasks – these are all inseparable from education. Therefore the promotion of education is one of the important functions of the state. This has been a consensus of the Chinese people, both past and present.
DETAILED>>Only effortless ease is complete and thorough ease. This is a Daoist concept on physical and mental freedom, which had an impact on ancient artistic creation. According to Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC), people fail to achieve peace because they lack inner strength, not because of external factors. lf the mind is full of distracting thoughts, always drawing a clear-cut line between all things and weighing gains and losses, then the soul will be ill at ease even though external conditions maybe comfortable. Only if all attempts at differentiation are abandoned and all distracting thoughts eliminated, can true ease and tranquility be achieved, and even unpleasant external circumstances be resisted. This thought enlightened the concept of aesthetic freedom in ancient literature and art.
Each of the eight trigrams consists of three lines and each line is either divided (- -) or undivided (—), representing yin or yang respectively. The eight trigrams are: qian (☰), kun (☷), zhen (☳), xun (☴), kan (☵), li (☲), gen (☶), and dui (☱). According to the ancient Chinese, the eight trigrams symbolized basic things and phenomena of nature or society and represented heaven, earth, thunder, wind, water, fire, mountain, and lake respectively. The ancient Chinese also used the interchanges and transformations of the eight trigrams and what they represented to understand and expound on natural and social changes and to explain why and how they took place.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the subtle elegance of literary and artistic works. It was originally used to depict a person’s mien and manner. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, the propriety inherent in a person was valued, whereas during the previous Han Dynasty, a person’s external appearance was stressed. Later on, this concept was incorporated into the theory of calligraphy and painting to refer to the elegant subtlety of a work. In the Ming Dynasty, the concept was extended to the theory of poetry, and elegant subtlety became a requirement for composing poetry. Later, Wang Shizhen（1634—1711） of the Qing Dynasty further developed the theory of elegant subtlety. In compiling The Elegant Subtlety of the Tang Poetry, he elaborated on his aesthetic views. In his writings on poetry theory, Wang Shizhen championed these views and created his own unique poetical aesthetics, enriching the theory of elegant subtlety, and making it a major school of the Qing-dynasty poetics.
DETAILED>>The poetic voice of Ji Kang ( 223-262, or 224-263) is marked by elevated clarity, while that of Ruan Ji (210-263) by unfathomable obscurity. These distinct styles are summarized by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) in his examination of the evolution of Chinese poetry in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. Infused with a blend of Daoist insight and Confucian resolution, Ji Kang’s poetry offers a genuine expression of his aspirations and experiences. His works pulsate with vigor and spontaneity, exuding an unwavering attitude, a fervent emotional depth, and a keen intellect that sliced through the most complex of ideas. Ruan Ji’s poems, in contrast, are marked by a reserved demeanor and complex language, a reflection of the tumultuous political climate in which he lived. Analogies, associations, and symbolism permeate his work, as does a penchant for using the past to satirize the present and for infusing emotions into inanimate objects. In this manner, Ruan Ji crafted a style that delves into the enigmatic and obscure, a profound approach that touches on the inexpressible aspects of melancholy, depression, bitterness, anxiety, sadness, and desolation. Ji Kang and Ruan Ji each forged their own way, defying the strictures of Confucianism to fully express their unique personalities. This liberated approach allowed them to access a profound understanding of life and history, one that was both expansive and unrestrained. Liu Xie’s acclaim of Ji Kang and Ruan Ji’s independent personalities and profound poetic prowess cemented their status as literary legends. Their works remain a source of inspiration for later scholars and word connoisseurs who have strived to emulate their esteemed oeuvre.
DETAILED>>This refers to the emblems and numbers used in divination. Emblems are cracks in baked tortoise shells, and numbers are inferred from stalks used in divination. Emblems and numbers are the basis of foretelling the future. In The Book of Changes, emblems are divination symbols and the things they represent, and numbers refer to the odd and even numbers of yin and yang and the numbers secured from the divination stalks. Some interpreters of The Book of Changes advocate using emblems and numbers to deduce the changes in all things in the universe.
DETAILED>>This expression refers to pursuing conciliatory and benevolent policies and offering benefits to tribes and groups in remote areas. It was a political concept adopted by successive governments led mostly by the Han people in their relations with other ethnic groups, tribes in remote areas not yet directly under their rule, and foreign states. It also represented an important component of the theory of winning over others by virtue. China was, as it is today, a multi-ethnic country. The Han-led government ruled over a large territory and believed that they had an advanced culture. They usually took a conciliatory approach based on the Confucian concept of benevolence in dealing with the tribes and populations in remote regions, rather than conquering them by force, with the goal of placating them and winning their allegiance.
DETAILED>>The supreme ruler of imperial China was called huangdi, meaning “emperor.” The origin of this word is a legend of ancient sovereigns known as the three huang ( 皇 sovereigns) and five di (帝 emperors). It is said that the three huang were Fuxi, Shennong and Suiren, while others identify them as Fuxi, Shennong and Nüwa. The five di are usually said to be Huangdi, Zhuanxu, Ku, Yao and Shun. In fact, they were just leaders of tribes or tribal alliances in remote antiquity. As they had unique contributions (Fuxi, for instance, taught people hunting and fishing and created the eight trigrams), they were honored with the titles huang or di. Huang originally meant august and great, and di indicated shrewdness and alertness. After Ying Zheng(259-210 BC), the king of Qin, unified China, he viewed his achievements as being greater than those of the three huang and five di. Therefore he put huang and di together and called himself “ the First Huangdi (Emperor).” From then on, huangdi became the title of the highest ruler in China.
DETAILED>>"Emptiness" is not absolute nothingness. Rather, it refers to the fact that existence does not last forever. This term was explained in detail by Seng Zhao (384 or 374-414), who opposed the views derived from a prevailing misunderstanding of "original non-being" in the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Commentators' interpretations of the "emptiness as non-substantiality" are mainly approached in two ways: first, things are empty because they are unreal, and so to establish the insubstantiality of all dharmas; second, emptiness itself is not real, and so to differentiate falsehood from absolute nothingness.
DETAILED>>Artists often admire natural scenery beholding landscape paintings rather than traveling to actual spots. When the Southern Dynasty painter Zong Bing (375-443), due to illness in old age, could no longer tour great mountains and rivers, he painted the landscapes he had once seen and then hung the works on the wall, thus fulfilling his dream of seeing those beautiful sights again. This term illustrates the tradition of loving mountains and rivers among ancient literati, affirms the significance of art to life, and promotes the art of painting.
DETAILED>>The ignorant should be enlightened through education so that they will follow the right path. (One opinion is that this must begin from early childhood.) Meng (蒙 ignorance) here refers to the naivety of the young and their lack of knowledge. Yang (养) means education. Zheng (正) suggests the right path, the proper way, and upright conduct. This term, which underlies Chinese pedagogy, stresses the importance of function and value of education.
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Enlightenment through education was a notion first put forward by Xunzi (313?-238 BC). He believed that people by nature desire external things. However,If unrestrained, this natural desire will lead to conflicts between people and plunge society into chaos. Therefore, they need to be enlightened through education to both meet their desires and make them understand and observe ethics and etiquette. The basic form of enlightenment is guiding their desires, words and deeds through teaching.
DETAILED>>A writer needs to refine his feelings and thoughts before he can produce good writing. Prose and poetry are not a crude combination of words and sentences; they are closely associated with the author’s sentiment. Here, sentiment can be understood as a person’s feelings and thoughts as well as his cognition of nature and life. Starting off from his own feelings and thoughts, the writer chooses appropriate wording and sentence patterns to voice his feelings and thoughts. By doing so, he aims to affect and inspire more readers. The greatest attraction of a literary work lies in the profound and unique emotional experience and rational cognition it conveys. Therefore, a writer lacking in emotion, thought and apprehension, even if he exerts his rhetorical skills to the utmost, will only produce superfluous and nonsensical things.
DETAILED>>Entertainers, known as Youren (优人), or Changyou (倡优), Paiyou (俳优), or Youling (优伶), were folk artists who performed story-telling, dancing, acrobatics, and comedy. After the Song and Yuan dynasties, they also performed in operas. Initially formed as small groups of entertainers sponsored by court aristocrats for entertainment, they evolved into professional performing troupes as cities grew in size after the Song and Yuan dynasties. In old China when ideological and ethical principles were valued to the neglect of entertainment, entertainers were low in social status. Sima Qian (145or 135?-? BC), in the "Biographies of Jesters" section of his Records of the Historian, praised entertainers for boldly giving moral advice to rulers. This practice later became a major criterion for commenting on entertainers, and it also became a conscious choice of aspiring entertainers.
The notion of enthralling charm carries a variety of meanings, such as symmetry, beauty, splendor, and attachment. It highlights the formal aesthetic features of magnificence, intricate beauty, and colorfulness, thus forming a major component of classical Chinese aesthetics. Stylistically, this term indicates elegance and majestic beauty. When referring to calligraphy, it suggests a nuanced taste and a delicate charm beyond the Chinese characters' external structures, arousing one's sense of beauty. When referring to music, enthralling charm appears in a miraculous melody, calling to mind a classical grace and serenity.
To entrust the education of one’s children to outside teachers – the notion that parents should put the education of their children to others rather than take it upon themselves is an educational insight attributed to the ancient philosopher Mencius (372?-289 BC). In his view, familial bonds thrive on affection, while the teacher-student relationship is grounded in discipline, with this dichotomy posing a challenge when parents step into the role of formal educators. In doing so, they may not only inadvertently undercut educational outcomes, but also risk dampening the innate warmth of parent-child ties. It is important to note that this wisdom speaks specifically to formal education; it is not a dismissal of the crucial role parents play in guiding their children’s learning within the family context.
DETAILED>>These were two types of writing in ancient times aimed at criticizing errors, upholding virtue, and inspiring philosophical thought. Ming (铭), meaning epigraph, is a brief account of merits and virtues inscribed on a vessel. Its sacredness and exemplary nature means such writing should be aspirational and visionary. Zhen (箴), meaning maxim, on the other hand, is intended to admonish or warn. In Chinese, it is pronounced as zhen, meaning an acupuncture needle, a traditional device for preventing or curing disease. Therefore, a zhen, should perform the role of preventing an error. Both ming or an epigraph and zhen or a maxim aim to admonish people against evildoing, promote virtue and punish vice. In the view of Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties, both types of writing should offer true and reliable information and convincing arguments and be succinct in wording and profound in significance.
As the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit word "sama," pingdeng (平等) means the same level with no difference. As a fundamental concept of Buddhism, it originally meant that there was no difference between the various castes. Later on, in Mahayana Buddhism and Buddhism adapted to the Chinese conditions, such as Zen Buddhism, it was believed that there was no difference between dharmas and between all sentient beings in terms of Buddha-nature and ultimate meaning. Buddhism stresses the value of equality in several respects, of which the most important one is equality for all sentient beings (there is no difference between living things). This is generally considered to mean equality for everyone. In modern times, the Western concept of equality was translated as pingdeng, in the sense that as a member of society, everyone enjoys the same status, opportunities and rights in social relations and social activities.
DETAILED>>Ai (哀) and diao (吊) essays were written in ancient times to express mourning for someone who had died a natural death or from an extreme misfortune. Ai, or an essay of mourning, was written to express grief or compassion. It was originally written for someone who died young; later, it was written to mourn a person’s miserable life or unfortunate encounters. Diao, or an essay of memory, was intended to express one’s deep affection for a long-deceased person or to offer his sincere condolences to the fatal misfortune suffered by a particular country or an individual. An essay of mourning was usually written for a recently deceased person, whereas an essay of memory showed one’s abiding love for someone who died long ago. Stylistically, there is much resemblance between these two types of writing. They were like today’s condolence speeches delivered at funerals, and some may be characterized as mourning or nostalgic lyrical essays. As Liu Xie (465?-520) put it in his literary critique The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, ai, or an essay of mourning, expresses sorrow for the deceased person’s yet unaccomplished merits, so it need not be excessively rhetorical in style. Diao, or an essay of memory, on the other hand, often shows one’s love for someone who died long ago, so it may contain an evaluation of his life tinged with sentimental attachment. Liu’s views still influence prose writing today.
This term means to establish credibility by careful use of language. The Chinese character xiu (修) refers to the careful selection of words and phrases as well as logical arrangement of text in writing a story, and some believe that it also refers to the cultivation of one’s mind. The Chinese character ci (辞) refers to what one says, and some interpret it as governance of public affairs and cultivation of good manners. The Chinese phrase licheng (立诚) means to establish credibility. When it comes to the writing of stories, it means what one writes about is true, the rhetoric one uses is plain and simple and one is sincere in expressing his feelings. Because of different written explanations in ancient books as well as different interpretations about the relationship between xiuci and licheng, this set phrase has primarily two meanings. The first addresses the overhaul of rituals and music as well as legal codes. This means that rulers must compose documents or essays with sincerity so that the principles for governance and social norms can be explicitly illustrated in documents or essays. As a result, the principles for running the country and social norms will be accepted by the public from well-written documents and essays, and be followed to the letter. The second refers to the expression of what a writer really thinks and feels when it comes to the writing of stories or essays. Confucianism holds that diction conveys what a writer thinks and feels, and hence the moral integrity of the writer can find expression in what he writes. If anything, this phrase indicates the importance Chinese people attach to the consistency between language and reality, between one’s words and actions, and between one’s appearance and inner thoughts.
DETAILED>>This concept originated in The Book of Rites and Xunzi. The Confucian view is that human emotions arise naturally and need to be properly expressed. They have an inescapable influence on people’s conduct and their moral behavior. To maintain an orderly and stable moral order, it is important that the emotions of people are properly expressed and not indiscriminately suppressed. Therefore, moral standards should be based on people’s reasonable desire.
DETAILED>>According to Records of the Historian, in order to gain the people’s trust before initiating his political reforms, Shang Yang (390?-338 BC) announced that, regardless of whoever it might be, if anyone was able to move a huge log 3 zhang long（ approx. 7 meters） from the southern gateway to the northern gateway of the market in the capital city, he would be amply rewarded. A person was bold enough to attempt this task and succeeded; hence he was immediately rewarded with a generous sum of money. After that, the people were convinced that Shang Yang was one who kept his word, and hence, he was able to issue his new decrees unimpeded. The important thing here is “the establishment of credibility” – winning the people’s trust. In order to pass a country’s decrees unimpeded, one must first gain trust, which is imperative for issuing a decree. Only in this way can the support and allegiance of the common people be gained.
DETAILED>>These are the techniques used in writing five-character poetry. The establishment of relations among things means that when depicting scenery and human figures, the poet should convey their outward features faithfully, making them look as if emerging right before readers’ eyes. Besides, the poet should demonstrate the implications of things clearly and accurately. The establishment of relations among things and the creation of imagery are inseparable from full exploration of the nuances of feelings and apt depiction of scenery and things. On the one hand, the poet should write with all his passion and devotion, embodying his feelings in external objects. Only true feelings can produce profoundly moving poetry. On the other hand, the poet should pursue underlying implications to the utmost, exploring the spiritual as well as the physical state of human figures, objects and scenery. In doing so, he is able to infuse a poetic charm and vigor into his work, free from a superficial resemblance to the things depicted. Linking the creation of relations and imagery with a description of objects and feelings makes poetry more tangible and vivid. In his work The Critique of Poetry, Southern Dynastiespoetry critic Zhong Rong (?-518 ?) believes that five-character poetry, compared to the four-character poetry represented by The Book of Songs, is adept at utilizing this technique. He gave full affirmation to the five-character poetry popular in the Southern Dynasties, which promoted its development.
Li (rites) and yue (music) are a whole set of social norms for regulating individuals’ conduct and their relationships with other people as well as everything else in nature and even ghosts and spirits. These norms involve ceremonial vessels, rituals, and systems which were designed and established for various levels. Rites are hierarchical systems, and music harmonizes the thoughts and emotions opeople in different ranks. The two complement each other to maintain socialorder and achieve the ideal rule with benevolence. Confucianism believes that the social norms featuring rituals and music of the Zhou Dynasty were established and created by the kings of the time according to their understanding of natural laws and human sentiment. Such social norms epitomize their respect and proper expressions of the law of nature and human feelings.
DETAILED>>Names are established through popular usage. Xunzi （313？-238 BC） proposed this idea to describe how things are named. Xunzi believed that names fall into different categories, and every name is used to indicate a particular object. Which name is used to describe what or what kind of things is decided by the popularity of its use. When everybody accepts a name established by popular usage, it has become a fixed name for the particular object. This idea has also been used to describe the establishment of social norms.
DETAILED>>This refers to an open, free, and flexible style of a work of art； it is the opposite of a “densely packed” work of art. Ethereal effect does not mean sheer emptiness； it does not completely avoid imagery, nor does it entirely avoid natural description. Rather its aim is to suggest unlimited possibilities for the viewer’s imagination through a highly economical use of brushwork and imagery so as to pursue the “meaning that lies beyond literal form” or “associations beyond the work itself.” In this way it leaves room for the viewer’s imagination. For example, just as redundant description is deliberately left out of an essay or a poem, along with ponderous wording or unnecessary images, just so thick ink and heavy colors may be avoided in painting. The notion of ethereal effect values simple layout and an economical use of details, seeking to convey character and imagination. Works that make use of ethereal effect convey a wonderful lucidity, and possess openness, freedom, and natural grace. Such works enable viewers to appreciate the aesthetic joy of free imagination.
DETAILED>>Originally, the term referred to the natural order of things. Gradually its meaning was transformed into ethical principles, i.e., relationships between human beings, and fundamental rules, principles and norms regulating such relationships. Since ancient times, the Chinese people have continuously valued highly proper relationships between people. The Confucian School believed that ethical norms served as basic guidelines for being a man. So, in Confucius' times, such a philosophy prevailed. It has been one of the major features of Chinese culture. In modern times, it is translated into the English term “ethics” and the original meaning of “order of things” has died out.
These constitute a genre of short rewriting in ancient times to sing the praise of a meritorious or virtuous deceased person. Such a eulogy, written in rhymed verse, was usually used to recount the deceased person’s virtuous deeds and express one’s grief over his death. The inscription carved on a stela has two parts, with the first part being a brief account of the life of a deceased person and the second extolling the person’s merits and virtues. According to Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties, this kind of writing was no longer written for emperors and kings only, but was extended to cover ordinary people. The text was written to see that the deceased person’s noble character passes down to posterity. It should highlight the person’s deeds truthfully and eulogize his fine deeds and virtue. A eulogy or an inscription carved on a stela was written to cherish the memory of the deceased and satisfy the need of those who were alive to seek eternal solace. It should also promote virtue and inspire later generations to excel. So, it should be discreet and proper in its assessment of the deceased person.
A doctor, no matter how good he is, cannot cure a fatal illness. No power is unlimited. No matter how skillful a doctor is and how advanced the medical facilities are, it is not possible to cure all diseases. There are always some diseases that cannot be cured and some lives that cannot be saved. This is very unfortunate yet inevitable. People should face this reality rationally and calmly. The expression is also used to remind people of force majeure and the limitations of human beings.
DETAILED>>This concept was proposed by Mencius (372?-289BC). By “being intelligent,”he meant that one is full of wisdom, which is mainly expressed as one’s ability to analyze, judge and reason; by “following the trend of the times,”he meant to follow the basic situation or trend of existence, change and development of things. The situation or trend of objective things is objective and primary; human wisdom is subjective and secondary. True wisdom is not a solidified thing in the human mind, but an evolving thing that exists in the interaction between subject and object. The subject of action must constantly and concretely reach the consistency of subjectivity and objectivity, size up the situation, make the best of the situation, acquire an understanding of laws,and develop a big-picture view, so as to make discoveries, creations, progress and achievements. This is the dialectic of the relationship between the subject and object.
DETAILED>>A person can be respected even though he may have a low social status. This concept was brought forth in the Confucian classic The Book of Rites. The term fufan (负贩) refers to a small trader who bears a toting pole on his shoulder to do business, and generally refers to people at the bottom of society. They were usually considered to be of low moral standards, but in reality this is not true. In accordance with rites, everyone should behave humbly and respect others, no matter how rich or poor they are. The rich should not be arrogant and extravagant, while the poor should try to improve their lot and be self-respecting. The dignity of human beings is based on rites. The concept embodies the spirit of reverence and equality.
DETAILED>>In the concept that even the Son of Heaven has something to respect, “something to respect” originally refers to a person or thing more honored than the Son of Heaven, and by extension, to a person or thing honored by him. Those respected by the Son of Heaven include his father, brothers, ancestors, the law, and Heaven which has a most sacred and ultimate meaning. All the above factors boil down to virtue or morality. The position of the Son of Heaven is supreme, but it does not constitute the basis for the supremacy of threigning person. His supremacy is based on his virtue or morality, that is, based on his virtue being commensurate or in line with morality. This is what earns him respect. Otherwise, he is not to be respected. Therefore, the Son of Heaven must also have constraints, and must also cultivate himself like the common people do so that he has the appropriate virtues ensuring that what he says and does is in line with morality. This is a typical embodiment of the Chinese people’s attention to virtue and morality.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the state of mind in which external things evoke one’s inner feelings, thus creating aesthetic appreciation. As an aesthetic term, evocation means both stimulation and association. In artistic appreciation, Confucius（551-479 BC） used evocation to refer to the psychological effect and educational function of reading poetry, and it was not meant to be a literary term only. In artistic creation, evocation means association, which is among the six poetic forms, namely, ballads, narratives, analogies, association, court hymns, and eulogy, as described in The Book of Songs. The first three refer to the content and subtypes of classic Chinese poetry, whereas the latter three elements are creative means employed by The Book of Songs. Evocation is defined by the use of similar or relevant things to create a metaphor which, by virtue of imagination and association, conveys a message through imagery and highlights the nuances of poetry. Evocation arouses one’s imagination through reading a poem, making such experience an enjoyable one. It is a rhetorical means frequently used in classical Chinese poetry. At first, evocation was closely linked to analogy. Its implication and aesthetic properties started to grow independently in the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties period, and finally became a poetic term different from analogy and association. Evocation focuses on the impact of external things on one’s emotions.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the use of exaggeration and embellishment in a literary work to enhance its artistic appeal. When used as appropriate, exaggeration and embellishment can achieve an artistic effect beyond that of realistic descriptions. However, if overused, it will create the opposite effect, making the writing too flowery to be credible. Therefore, the literary critics of old China believed that excessive use of exaggeration and embellishment should be avoided.
DETAILED>>In ancient China, many schools of thought advocated “exalting the worthy” or similar ideas. They asked those in power to employ worthy and able men and make effective use of them in governance by assigning them positions and responsibilities corresponding to their virtues. Virtue and talent were to be the first and foremost criterion in selecting officials. To the Confucians, empowering the virtuous and able was a useful complement to loving and caring for kinsmen. To the Mohists, empowering the virtuous and able was an important prerequisite for governance that “conforms upwardly.”
This term means to study or examine things, people or any phenomenon. It is an approach developed by Confucian scholars to help people obtain accurate assessments of things around them and to cultivate morals and ethics, as a kind of methodology. Sometimes the term is used as a noun to refer to a standard or criterion. When the term is used to assess a person’s qualifications, it refers to his moral quality which is to say, a person’s personality or moral integrity, as well as attainments in learning. In literary criticism, it has three connotations: first of all, it refers to the basic requirements and methods for poem or prose writing; second, it refers to the taste, style, and literary attainment; third, it is about the overall structure of a literary work or how the form and content are integrated. All in all, the term refers to the criteria applied in judging a literary work.
DETAILED>>This term first appeared in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties. It focuses on the relationship between feeling and style. Here, qing (情) means “sensibility” or “reason-based passion,” and refers to feelings, thought and content in a literary work. Cai (采) means “literary grace.” It refers to formal beauty or literary adornment, highlighting the formal aspects of a work. Excessive adornment and lack of true feeling and content inevitably make a work boring. The relationship between feeling and style is comparable to that between an animal fur and its stripes. It would be absurd to destroy a fur for the sake of preserving its stripes.
DETAILED>>“Exerting one’s mind to the utmost” means one should fully understand and extend one’s innate goodness. It is a way of moral cultivation advocated by Mencius（372-289 BC）. To do so, one needs to develop one’s capability of thinking, discover the goodness inherent in the mind and then fully nurture this innate human character, eventually realizing the moral qualities of benevolence, righteousness, rites and social norms, and wisdom.
DETAILED>>In this concept, shi (势) means how things exist, change and evolve, which is objective and primary; and li (利) is the goal set by people, which is subjective and secondary. A goal should be reached through interactions between the objective and the subjective, not by imposing subjective desire on the objective. As the initiator of action, people must continuously try to achieve alignment between the objective and the subjective. In this way they will rationalize their knowledge, develop a broad perspective and make timely adjustments, which will lead to new discoveries, innovations and advancement. This is the relationship between the objective and the subjective.
DETAILED>>This term means to thoroughly explore the fundamental nature and pervasive laws of humanity and all things, which includes the exploration of natural phenomena, cosmic laws, and local events. We must fully understand how all things are connected, so that we can contribute to all things flourishing in their roles. Neo-Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty took this conception as a fundamental means to understand the world, to cultivate one’s morality, and to know in depth the principles of heaven. Wang Yangming (1472-1529) held that laws and nature are not two different things. To explore the laws of things means to find out their nature. Ancient Chinese believed that to understand the world and oneself, and to reform the world and improve oneself are a process of interaction and unity. Only when such process advances can the harmony between humanity and all things be accomplished.
This is what Confucius （551-479BC）said of the description of love between young men and women in the poem entitled “Guan Ju” in “Ballads of Zhounan,” The Book of Songs. Later Confucian scholars regarded this as a basic requirement for poems and other literary works to advocate impartiality, peace of mind, and harmony between emotion and reason, making it a criterion for evaluating literary works. Its connotation is in accord with zhongyong (the golden mean) of Confucianism. In the more recent history, the connotation of the term has been continuously renewed to keep pace with the times.
DETAILED>>This term holds that all expressions of grief and joy should be kept under the restraint of propriety. It means that artists should not be extreme when giving vent to their feelings. They should start off with feelings but end in self-discipline. The term applies to both the philosophical field and artistic creation. What it accentuates is the golden mean, a Confucian term advocating impartiality, reconciliation, and compromise, with propriety as its overriding principle. If an artist obeys the golden mean, whether he writes an essay or a poem or paints a picture, his work will naturally show the beauty of equilibrium and highlight the gentleness and honesty of the Confucian doctrine.
DETAILED>>This term, which figuratively means to replace the flesh and bones of an ordinary human being with those of an immortal, is used to describe a literary technique in which a writer uses his own words to express new ideas while quoting those from earlier works. The emphasis is on borrowing from the past without showing any traces, yet forming something new in the process. In poetry, this is achieved primarily by substituting words and ideas to highlight a theme, thus creating a beautiful new phrase. Duotai (夺胎) is to identify an idea in an existing work and to imbue it with new meaning by expounding, deepening or broadening it. Huangu (换骨) is to identify a brilliant idea or feeling in an earlier work which is insufficiently expressed, and to give it greater refinement and clarity by expressing it with a more appropriate choice of words. This technique exemplifies how literature both perpetuates and yet changes tradition. Cultural scholarship can also borrow from this method to build on the past and to further develop.
DETAILED>>The term means that ingenuity and skill at their best look simple and clumsy. The greatest ingenuity should be something completely natural and that it has not been painstakingly worked on. The term comes from the book Laozi. Laozi the philosopher believed that everything should be in keeping with nature. He advocated non-action and was against any form of excessive act. Later, the term came to mean the highest possible level of skill and perfection in artistic and literary creation. In Chinese literary theory, “exquisite skill looks simple and clumsy” does not mean the clumsier the better, nor is it a rejection of skill. Rather, it rejects excessive embellishment and over-pursuit of the exquisite, and encourages well-founded simplicity and naturalness. The phrase represents the highest possible level of perfection in artistic beauty and skill and is also what the people in pre-modern China strove to achieve in calligraphy, painting, gardening, and other forms of art.
DETAILED>>Mencius (372?-289 BC) advocated that those in power should govern with love and benevolence. He believed that humans by nature have love for their fellows, but that this needs to be widely inclusive in order to constitute a true rule with benevolence. Love and benevolence begin with close family and relatives but then should spread to embrace all the people under his rule. This is the way to achieve rule with benevolence.
DETAILED>>Bo (博) means extensive, wide; ai (爱) is synonymous with hui (惠) which means benefit to all. Ancient Chinese believed that ensuring the people a life of peace and security is hui. Love in turn is an expression of ren (仁) , or benevolence, which is based on close human relationships. The term applies primarily to a concept of governance of “love for and benefit to the people,” as demonstrated through its systems, laws, policies, and measures which should be as inclusive as possible. The term also refers to a kind of social morality and personal integrity based on harmonious engagement with others, goodwill, and mutual help.
DETAILED>>Essays of extolment and commendation were written to pay tribute to laudable persons, things, merits and virtues, thus promoting their positive influence. The purpose of both an extolment and a commendation is to exalt good persons and things. Such essays are short, neatly patterned and rhymed. Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties valued the intellectual and educational value of extolment and commendation essays. He found that the objects of extolment had extended from gods, emperors and kings to ordinary people and the scope of extolment was no longer limited to state affairs; it had been extended to cover all beautiful things. To him, an essay of commendation also functions as an evaluation and a positive evaluation enhances the significance of commendation. In Chinese literature, writings of extolment or commendation are not only essays in their own right; they are sometimes attached to various literary works or even news reports. These works, through extolment and positive evaluation, promote the traditional Chinese thought and culture.
DETAILED>>This literary term is used in poetry to comment on a ruler’s moral character, policies, decrees, and performance, either in praise or criticism. Confucius（551-479BC） was the first to point out that poetry could be used to vent resentment and thus established a basic function of poetry writing by emphasizing the role The Book of Songs played in voicing grievances. In the Han Dynasty, however, poetry tended to be used as a vehicle for extolling the accomplishments and virtues of rulers. In “Introductions to Mao’s Version of The Book of Songs” and Zheng Xuan's （127-200）“Preface to On the Categories of The Book of Songs,” two influential writings on theory of poetry published during the Han Dynasty, extolment and satirical criticism was regarded as an underlying principle of poetic criticism. This principle was widely employed by poets and writers of later generations as a way of getting involved in politics and making their impact on the society. This constituted a fundamental function and an essential feature of Chinese literature.
DETAILED>>When things reach their extreme, change occurs, after the change they evolve smoothly, and thus they continue for a long time. This notion comes from The Book of Changes and is a way of understanding the principles of change. According to this text, things are constantly changing and will, when they reach their extreme, develop in the opposite direction. People ought to understand the way of change, look for the turning point when things reach their extreme, and facilitate change so as to effect their smooth and long-lasting development.
One should face reality calmly and follow its natural course. This is an attitude to life espoused by the ancient philosopher Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC). He believed that all things undergo spontaneous transformations independent of man’s will and that humans should face the changes of life and death calmly. However, this does not mean passivity or resignation. It means that people should look upon
life with detachment, be at ease with changes and follow life’s natural path. This is an extension of Laozi’s principle that “Dao operates naturally.”
The expression means fair and just. Gong (公), the opposite of si (私 private), means impartial and not self-centered. Zheng (正), the opposite of qu (曲 crooked), has two meanings. One is shared norms based on justice, and the other is making oneself comply with these norms in one’s behavior and stay unbiased and impartial in one’s relationship with others. Fairness is expressed mainly in a state or society having a common morality and norms with which all people are bound and which people use to judge whether others are doing right. In modern society, fairness finds its expression mainly in the way that institutions, laws, and people are just and social wealth and public resources are fairly distributed. It is seen as one of the core values conducive to good morality and society.
DETAILED>>Only by being fair can one distinguish between right and wrong; only with moral conduct can one establish authority. These mottoes were used as reminders by upright officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties. Gong (公) means fairness and opposing pursuit of selfish interest. Ming (明) means discernment, namely, the ability to distinguish right from wrong. Lian (廉) means free from corruption. Wei (威) means authority or credibility. Today, these teachings have remained important principles which office holders should abide by. They mean that governance should be exercised in a fair and just way and within the framework of laws and regulatory procedures of the state. Officials should lead by example, have moral integrity and be self-disciplined; they should put public interests above their own and not use their power to pursue personal gain.
DETAILED>>Good reputation is spread through writing, as is great accomplishment. Here, both teng (腾) and fei (飞) stand for “soar high” and “spread far.” Sheng (声) alludes to “fame achieved through virtue,” while shi (实) refers to “accomplishment, especially that made by pursuing the correct way.” Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties championed the “three highest attainments in life” as advocated by ancient Chinese sages, namely setting moral examples, performing great deeds, and spreading noble ideas. He regarded spreading noble ideas, or literary writing, not only as a means of promoting virtue, but also a virtue in itself. Thus he elevated the act of writing to the height of virtue, on a par with the two other attainments in life.
DETAILED>>Family-state referred to the land owned by feudal lords and officials in ancient China. The land of a feudal lord was called “state” and the land of an official was called “family.” In ancient China, family, clan and country shared common structural features, all founded on the basis of blood relationships. This is the so-called “commensurability of family and state.” Family-state later referred to the entire territory of a country. In modern times, the term is also used to denote a polity encompassing a territory, a people, and a government.
DETAILED>>It is not scarcity that we should fear, but inequality. These words, an underpinning principle put forth by Confucius (551-479 BC), shed light on his philosophy of governance. In this paradigm, “scarcity” symbolizes the shortage of land, population, or wealth, while “equality” epitomizes fairness and balance – each person receiving their fair share. Confucius argued that the accumulation of societal resources and the growth of wealth, while significant, should not be a ruler’s primary objective. Instead, the focus ought to be on the just and equitable distribution of resources and wealth. By doing so, rulers could maintain a balanced state for both society and nation. In the modern context, this wisdom serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of fairness and justice. Even in a society teeming with wealth, stark wealth disparity can inflame social conflict and, if left unchecked, precipitate societal fragmentation.
DETAILED>>Natural or societal phenomena trigger a subjective feeling, which in turn expresses itself in words. This term was first raised by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties in his critical work on literature and writing, The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It reveals the fact that subjective feeling varies with the changes in natural or societal phenomena. This relation between sentiments, natural or societal phenomena, and verbal expressions originates from the relation between speech, meaning, and phenomena in philosophical and linguistic inquiries, but it has its own peculiar implications. Where academic or practical writing is concerned, meaning takes shape in the mind first, and then it finds expression through words; even when it involves objects or scenery, words are employed to explain and support the existing meaning. In such a process, meaning will not change with external objects or scenery. However, literary creation is a process of expressing subjective feelings; therefore its wording sentimentally varies with external objects or scenery. Liu Xie’s observation both reveals the origin of literature and explains the features of literary conception; it made literature conscious of its own subjective status. The Six Dynasties’ writings reflect this new trend, as noted by Liu in his The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons.
When feelings surge up in people's hearts due to inspiration from external objects, they will find expression in poetry and music.
This system was central to life in ancient China; it was a system of principles and measures by which a clan, a state, or society was run, based on bloodline or whether a son was born from the wife or a concubine. The feudal clan system evolved from the patriarchal chiefs system. Taking shape during the Western Zhou Dynasty, this system and the feudal system were mutually dependent and complementary. The feudal clan system had two levels: one was the familial level, where the eldest son by the wife was the first in line to inherit the family’s property and thus enjoyed the greatest authority. Other members of the clan were allotted their status and authority according to their closeness of kinship, ancestry, or seniority. In the families of the emperor, kings, and other nobility, this pattern was extended to the state or national level. It had a decisive impact on the inheritance of the imperial throne and on state politics. The feudal clan system greatly influenced the Chinese way of life and thinking for several thousand years.
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In feudalism, the lord granted titles of nobility, fiefs, and people to his relatives and officials and allowed them to establish dukedoms. A fief was smaller than the territory under the direct control of the lord. While obeying the rule of the lord, a dukedom enjoyed a high degree of autonomy in its military and administrative affairs. Dukedoms checked each other in the protection of the lord. A dukedom might be passed down genetically upon the approval of the lord and was required to pay tribute to him. As a political system, feudalism is believed to have started in the era of the legendary Yellow Emperor, and became established in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Feudalism was akin to the patriarchal clan system based on blood ties and gave rise to a hierarchy system. After the first emperor of Qin（259-210 BC）
reunified China, he abolished feudalism in favor of the system of prefectures and counties. From the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, centralized government or imperial autocracy was dominant in China, rendering feudalism, which existed overtly or covertly, supplementary.
Fiction is a literary genre primarily concerned with depicting characters to tell a complete story about social life within a setting. Fiction has three main elements, namely, characters, a plot, and a setting. Depending on the length, fiction can be divided into novels, novellas, and short stories. In terms of content, traditional Chinese fiction can be divided into the following broad categories: fantasy stories of gods and spirits, historical fiction, heroic legendary tales, and stories about human relations and social mores. In terms of genre, traditional Chinese fiction is divided into literary sketches, legendary tales, story- tellers’ prompt-books, and chapter-based novels. In terms of language, there is fiction in the classical language and vernacular fiction. Traditional Chinese fiction has evolved through different stages, with distinctive features for each period. The myths, legends and historical biographies of the pre-Qin and Han dynasties, and the fables in the works of the earlier Chinese thinkers were the sources of traditional Chinese fiction. The literary sketches by men of letters in the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties were embryonic forms of traditional fiction. The legendary tales of the Tang Dynasty marked the eventual emergence of Chinese fiction. The story-tellers’ prompt-books in the Song and Yuan dynasties laid the foundation that allowed traditional fiction to reach maturity. The novels of the Ming and Qing dynasties marked the peak in the development of pre-modern fiction. That period is famous for producing great Chinese classical novels, namely, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West, Outlaws of the Marsh and Dream of the Red Chamber. During and after the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement around 1919, a large amount of modern vernacular fiction appeared, bringing forth a message of science and democracy of the modern age.
DETAILED>>To wage a war, one must have a legitimate cause, just as we ought to have such a reason in doing all things. The term has two meanings. The first is that moral justification is a source of strength when waging a war. With moral justification, the troops will have high morale and strength in fighting. Without it, it would be difficult to command the troops. The second meaning is that war must not be waged without a just cause. Greed or anger should not be allowed to lead to militarism and aggression. The underlying notion of this concept is that war can only be fought with a just cause, which represents the spirit of civilization.
DETAILED>>This term means sending an army to fight a just war, similar to the present idea of “fighting for righteousness.” Since ancient times, the Chinese people have held high esteem for an army sent to war for the sake of justice. Here yi (义) means stopping any aggressive act of violence, and eliminating the suffering of the people. War is an act of violence, and no one should initiate a war. Instead, war is a last resort to resist and prevent any violence inflicted on the people. The term demonstrates the ideals of justice and benevolence upheld by the Chinese nation.
“Courage” is what it takes to go into a battle. It means the fighting spirit of an army, its will to win and its fearless heroism. The word “courage” not only refers to the spirit of individual soldiers, but also that of the entire army. It is a necessary condition or pre-requisite for winning the victory. Going into battle is dangerous. Without sufficient courage, other favorable conditions will hardly matter. What is implied is the following military wisdom: Of all the factors needed for a victory, the human factor is of primary importance; of all the human factors required, human spirit is of primary importance.
DETAILED>>Filial piety is obedience to, and respect and love for your parents. To observe this, you must do the following. First, attentively keep your body, born by parents, safe from injury and illness so as to relieve them of their worries. Second, do not go against your parents’ teachings, guidance and requests; obey them even if you do not agree with them. Third, gain fame and become accomplished through moral integrity, so as to highlight their teachings and guidance. Filial piety is rooted in children’s love and respect for their parents. Confucians believe that filial piety is the foundation of a person’s moral integrity and the basis for maintaining and strengthening the parent-child relationship, and even the sovereign-subject relationship.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a kind of classical music in China. Noble and pure, it was the music used by kings in ancient times when worshipping heaven, earth, and ancestors, receiving congratulations from other quarters of the world, or holding feasts and major ceremonial activities. Chinese classical music often eulogized the royal court’s accomplishments； its melodies were tranquil and stately, its wording elegant and tasteful, and its performance of song and dance followed explicit codes of etiquette. Rulers of all dynasties used this kind of music as an effective means to instruct their people and promote civic virtue. As a courtly tradition, the music was necessarily conservative. However, throughout history the assimilation of elements of folk song and dance, as well as the music and dance of foreign lands, inevitably led to innovation. Thus, it maintained throughout the ages the highest levels of musical excellence. After the Tang Dynasty, this kind of music spread to other Asian countries such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, becoming a constituent part of their musical culture.
DETAILED>>The first of these two Chinese characters means firm and unyielding； the second one means resolute and decisive. As people often come under undue influences that affect their observance of moral standards, this term emphasizes the need to resist such influences by adhering to ethical rules in their conduct. People should neither succumb to self-driven motives, nor yield to violence and coercion. Confucian scholars regarded firmness and resolution as an important virtue which is close to benevolence.
The term represents one interpretation of the relationship between “knowledge” and “action.” Regarding the relationship between “knowledge” and “action,” Wang Fuzhi（1619-1692） and others argued that “action precedes knowledge.” Wang acknowledged that an understanding of the principles underlying human relations in everyday life is interrelated with the application of these principles, but in terms of sequence, only through “action” can one obtain “knowledge.” “Action” is the source of “knowledge” and has a decisive impact on “knowledge.” If one can “act,” one inevitably “knows” about one’s actions, but the ability to “know” does not necessarily translate into the ability to “act.”
DETAILED>>The term refers to the five Confucian classics: The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. In the pre-Qin period, the term “Six Classics” was used, referring to The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. The Book of Music, did not exist in written form, hence people often used the term “Five Classics” during the Han Dynasty. After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (156-87 BC) established the title of “Academician of the Five Classics,” study of these works became the foundation of Chinese learning, culture, and thought. In terms of content, the Five Classics each has its own focus; for instance, The Book of Songs deals with aspirations, and The Book of History chronicles events. Different in focus but complementing each other, they form an integral collection of classics. Throughout history, Confucian scholars added significant meaning to these classics with their interpretations of the original texts. The Five Classics comprise traditional Chinese culture’s fundamental understanding of world order and values, epitomizing the concept of dao.
Five-character rhythmic poetry is one of the most important forms of ancient Chinese rhyming poetry. The basic form is eight lines with four pairs of rhymes and each line has five characters. Long rhyming poems with six, eight or even more rhymes are also part of five-character rhythmic poetry. Five-character rhythmic poetry must meet both metrical rules and rhetorical requirements.The metrical rules refer to level and oblique tones and the rhyme scheme. In five-character rhythmic poetry, there are four basic types of lines, alternating between level and oblique tones; level and oblique tones must match between different pairs of lines and within the same pair of lines; and rhymes are in even numbered lines, usually with the level tone. The rhetoric is embodied in the antithesis and the arrangement of introduction, elucidation, transition and summing up. The eight lines are divided into the first, second, third, and fourth pairs, and the second and third pairs in the middle are antithetical. Five-character rhythmic poetry is the most sophisticated form of Chinese five-character poetry, combining the beauty of temperament and rhetoric. The overall rhythm is smooth, and impromptu inspirations and material objects are integrated, producing the artistic aesthetic effect of tranquility and stateliness. The Tang Dynasty attained the greatest achievement in five-character rhythmic poetry, with a large number of famous poets and poems. In addition, from the Tang Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, five-character rhythmic poetry with six or eight rhymes, known as shitie poetry (试帖诗), was always a compulsory item in the imperial examination. This fully illustrates the importance of this type of poetry in classical Chinese culture.
DETAILED>>Originally this term indicated that a woman had a delicate figure, that she was fleshy and limber. Later it was used to judge calligraphy and painting, indicating that the circulation of the writing brush was lavish and vigorous, but that the strength of the bone (structure) was weak. Bone (structure) means skeletal structure, indicating weakness or vigor in the strength of the writing brush and in the structure of the work. “Fleshy” indicates that the lines are sumptuous and charming, but without strength, or that the ink is thick and the colors heavy. In the old days, it was stressed that a work of calligraphy or a painting should have a bone (structure) and be fleshy and that there should be a proper balance between the bone and flesh. There should neither be a lack of elegance nor of vigor and strength. Therefore, “fleshy body and soft bone structure” is regarded as a demerit. But when there is a stout bone structure and soft muscles, or when the bone structure is stout and the muscles are smooth, both are considered desirable. This term shifted from depicting human figures to appreciating art works, giving expression to the Chinese aesthetic concept of “using body parts to describe what is near.”
DETAILED>>This expression is used to describe prose and poetry lacking fluency because they fail to express their authors’ feelings freely, and instead borrow hackneyed allusions or phrases. Such writing is seen to lack flair, and comes across as unnatural and fragmentary. Juluan (拘挛) points to the lack of fluency as a result of artificial, rigid use of allusions. Buna (补衲) describes a failure to use appropriate allusions, often too many and out of keeping with the author’s own tone and style, leaving the writing like “a garment patched together with rags.” Zhong Rong (?-518?), using this term with its concrete image, vividly laid bare how some essayists and poets stifled their own works by alluding to a profusion of events and tales. He argued that prose and poetry should prize free expression of one’s feelings. This yields the questions of how to borrow one’s predecessors’ words flexibly and how to borrow from one’s predecessors’ messages creatively. In Zhong’s view, since many writers lack intellectual and literary talent, they understandably fall back on scholarly knowledge to make up for this inadequacy.
DETAILED>>The late Ming and early Qing drama theorist Li Yu (1611-1680) used this term to suggest that a drama should revolve around main characters and events. He said that when an ancient writer wrote an essay, he would always develop a main theme first. This main theme was what he wanted to write about. A drama, too, should unfold around a key character and a key event, namely, the main theme of the drama, which would spur plot development and interaction between characters. The key event was the one which, of all events in the drama, played a central role in developing the plot and which linked together all plots elements. As an example, Li Yu said the main character in Romance of the Western Chamber was Zhang Junrui, whom the White Horse General rescued and around whom all the other characters and events revolved. Main characters and main events were equally important. The authors of many legendary dramas knew how to create a main character but did not know how to set up a main event. As a result, their works looked like broken strings of pearls or houses without pillars. Establishing a main theme was very important to the structure of a drama.
According to this concept, one can only grasp the essential meaning of a work by delving into its connotations through repeated reading and recitation. Chenqian (沉潜) means in-depth exploration and study, and fengsong (讽诵), recitation or reading aloud. “Focused study through reading and recitation”is a reading method proposed by the Song-dynasty scholar Zhu Xi (1130-1200) for studying Confucian classics such as The Book of Songs. Zhu Xi insists that in order to truly understand the intent and gist of the classics, one has to immerse oneself in them, carefully parsing and pondering the connotations and sentiments embodied, and engaging in repeated reading and recitation. As a matter of fact, such focused study through reading and recitation is not limited to the appreciation of Confucian classics and poetry, but can be broadly applied to reading essays, poetic rhapsodies, ci poems, lyrics of songs, and other literary genres and scholarly works. In short, “focused study through reading and recitation” is a reading method, which can be used both as an approach for appreciating literature and as a tool for studying classic scholarly works.
DETAILED>>Fa xianwang (法先王), as opposed to fa houwang (法后王), literally means “to follow the examples of ancient kings.” It represents a particular attitude towards history and tradition. Xianwang (先王) refers to ancient monarchs known for noble virtue and remarkable accomplishments in historical accounts, such as Yao, Shun, and Yu. Different schools of thought recognize different monarchs with their virtue and accomplishments. The idea of fa xianwang is not just about admiring the virtue and accomplishments of ancient kings, but also about following their examples in contemporary politics, as the deeds of the ancient kings serve as a legitimate foundation for government in reality.
DETAILED>>Fa houwang (法后王), as opposed to fa xianwang (法先王), literally means “to follow the examples of recent kings.” It represents a particular attitude towards history and tradition. Houwang (后王) refers to the contemporary monarchs known for noble virtue and remarkable political achievements. The notion of fa houwang is not only about revering the virtue and accomplishments of the recent rulers, but also about obeying their commands and accepting their actions. In this context, the deeds of the recent kings are considered more legitimate and better adapted to the changing times compared to those of ancient kings, as recorded in historical accounts.
DETAILED>>The ancient Chinese believed that virtuous men followed the will of heaven in establishing a political regime and becoming its sovereigns; hence their success came from the mandate of heaven. This thought is similar to the Western notion of the divine right of kings; but it also emphasizes the wishes and will of the people, or people-centered thinking. In ancient China, this phrase was often used in praise of the founding of a new dynasty, and the implementation of major social reforms to justify its legitimacy.
DETAILED>>This expression means to follow the natural meridian as a constant rule. This comes from Zhuangzi’s work “On Nurturing Life.” Du (督) refers here to the meridian along the human spine, central yet without form. Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) held that the laws governing natural phenomena had the same characteristics. He differentiated this from narrow-minded and conventional moral laws. “Following the Du meridian as the law” means following a natural law, which is fair and invisible, and allows man to traverse among all things under heaven without running contrarily to them.
DETAILED>>The people consider food to be of the utmost importance. Shi (食 food) is a general term for the basic resources or material conditions essential to human life; tian (天 heaven) refers to the most important things or the basic elements which determine everything. Ancient Chinese believed that rulers not only had to understand that the ordinary people were the ruler’s “heaven” and the “foundation” of the state, they also had to understand what the ordinary people’s “heaven” was. Food is an indispensable basic material condition for the people to feed themselves, support their families, live peacefully, and fulfill stable jobs; of course it is also an indispensable basic material condition for a ruling group to mollify the people and ensure their livelihood. The bottom line for governing a country and helping its people is to guarantee the people food to eat and enough of it, and to guarantee the supply of basic resources needed for survival. This is an extremely pragmatic political concept.
DETAILED>>Think in terms of oneself. This is the fundamental concept of Yang Zhu of the Warring States Period. He felt that to oneself, the most important things were one’s body and one’s life. Hence the main consideration in “for one’s own sake”is how to protect one’s body and life. In Yang Zhu’s opinion, people should observe the principle of acting “for one’s own sake” in their words and deeds, and prioritize thinking about themselves. Not even the slightest harm to one’s own body or life should result from seeking personal wealth and status, or from seeking benefits for others or for the collective.
DETAILED>>Think in terms of self-interest. This concept was proposed by the Daoists and the Legalists during the Warring States Period. Scholars of both schools felt that people’s words and deeds are always based on considerations of their own interests, and that they always try to gain advantages and avoid harm. Ideas that appear to be for the sake of others and actions that care for others actually occur in order to gain benefits for oneself. For those who govern, it is necessary to have a grasp of people’s concerns for their own interests and to use these effectively through meting out rewards and punishments.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the knowledge obtained about something before it happens or exists. It first appears in Laozi, referring to the knowledge one has obtained about something before others get to know about it. Those who believe that they can have such foreknowledge tend to consider themselves as prophets. However, the Daoist School believes that such foreknowledge is only personal understanding about things, and can hardly reveal the true nature of things they allegedly know about. If a sovereign ruler governs according to such foreknowledge, his rule is likely to be detrimental to the well-being of its people and leads to an upheaval.
DETAILED>>The expression originates from a line in Song-dynasty Emperor Huizong’s (1082-1135)“Palace Poems,”which reads,“Forget your worries, enjoy leisurely tranquility playing the game of go.”In other words, the game of go allows a person to forget his worries. Emperor Huizong indulged himself in many leisure pursuits. He displayed great talent in them, and took special delight in the game of go. With his encouragement, the game became very popular and produced quite a few national champions, making the Song Dynasty a celebrated era for the game. A grand master in that time was an individual called Li Yimin who was appointed by the Emperor as an on-call game official in the Imperial Academy. He compiled a renowned game manual entitled A Manual to Forget Worries and Enjoy Leisurely Tranquility, using the words from the poem by Emperor Huizong. It is the earliest book on the game of go known to exist in China today. Many men of letters in ancient China loved music, board games, calligraphy, and painting. Therefore, there were many writings on board games.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a Daoist way of breaking away from the difference and opposition between one’s self and the universe. It comes from the book Zhuangzi, which elaborates its meaning in a dialogue between Confucius (551-479 BC) and Yan Hui (521-481 BC). In Zhuangzi’s (369?-286 BC) view, status and etiquette norms in the human world caused divisions and antagonisms and hence created constraints on people. One should forget status and norms and furthermore forget one’s own physical existence and intellect to cast off the differences between one’s self and the universe and thus be free from the constraints and influence of external factors.
DETAILED>>People and things both exist in form and content , with content representing their essence and form representing their appearance . Confucian scholars often used “form and content” to describe the display and the substance of rites. The external “form” must be based on the internal “content” because form pursued in isolation from content will be ostentatious. At the same time, form is indispensable for presenting internal content. Form must suit and correspond to content.
The term refers to the form and metrical patterns, as well as content, of poetry. It relates to artistic taste and appeal in poetry criticism. Ge (格) refers to the need to satisfy established metrical rules, while diao (调) refers to the need to follow tone and rhyme schemes in poetry. Some poetry critics of the Tang and Song dynasties stressed the importance of form and melody in order to establish a set of elegant and authoritative standards for poetry. Theory on form and melody in the Ming and Qing dynasties often emphasized the importance for poets to abide by Confucian orthodoxy, thus constraining their expression of feelings and artistic creations. The term was later also used in discussions of other forms of art.
DETAILED>>Xing (形) refers to the form of an object, and ming (名) refers to its name. The ancient Chinese believed that objects have forms, and that each formed object has its own specific nature which distinguishes it from other objects, whereas its name specifies the object. An order comprised of names establishes the relationships between the objects as well as their positions in the order. Certain schools of thought felt that the forms and names inherent in objects already incorporate a certain rational order, and that those who govern should abide by and uphold this order. Other schools of thought believed that an order of forms and names could be created after the fact through punishments (xing) and education. When emphasizing the need to analyze and judge things and actions while meting out punishments, 形名 (form and name) is also rendered as 刑名(punishment and name).
DETAILED>>Form and spirit, or body and soul, are an important pair of concepts in Chinese philosophy on life. In terms of human life, these two concepts exist in unity and are inseparable. Their unity gives rise to life, while their separation leads to death. There are generally two opposing views about the relationship between the two concepts. One view holds that spirit is the essence of life, while body is only the form in which life exists. The other view is that body is the material basis for the existence of spirit, while spirit is the inner basis for the functioning of body. This pair of concepts also apply to the realm of aesthetics, referring to the form and appeal of architecture, or the form and content as well as the form and charm of literary works.
DETAILED>>Cheng (城) is a city with walls surrounding it. The Chinese character for cheng originally referred to inner and outer city walls built of earth, with military defense and flood control functions. Usually, it was surrounded by a moat. In ancient times, the state capital of a monarch, the fief of a prince, and a manor estate granted by a monarch to a minister or a senior official all had a walled settlement as the center, hence the name cheng. The Chinese character for cheng is pronounced the same way as another character meaning accommodating. Here, cheng means having the capacity to accommodate people. The primary function of a cheng is to protect its residents. This is a concrete manifestation of the political notion that people are the foundation of the state.
DETAILED>>Huofu (祸福) refers to things that have good or harmful impacts on people or the results that they may cause. Fu (福) refers to good fortune that benefits people while huo (祸) refers to disasters that harm humans. Generally speaking, people pursue good fortune while avoiding misfortune. Therefore, they also explore the reasons for the occurrence of good fortune and misfortune. Some people believe that fortune and misfortune are rewards or punishments from heaven or limitations imposed by destiny that are beyond human control. Others advocate that fortune and misfortune depend on people’s own words and deeds. In addition, some emphasize that people should go beyond calculating fortune and misfortune and just do what they should do.
DETAILED>>Fortune and misfortune are intertwined. The term “fortune and misfortune” refers broadly to opposing aspects such as the auspicious and inauspicious, advantages and disadvantages, gains and losses, good and bad. The ancient Chinese believed that such opposing aspects are relative, and that they also share common elements. They are dialectically unified during the course of an event; as the event progresses, conditions change and turn into their opposites. Bad things may lead to good outcomes and good things may likewise lead to bad outcomes. This dialectic is a reminder that when circumstances are favorable, one must be on guard against bad developments; similarly, when circumstances are unfavorable, one must see a ray of hope and, at the right moment, try to make things take a turn for the better. Ideas such as “things reverse course when pushed to an extreme,” “be on alert against potential danger when living in peace,” and “losing a horse may be a blessing in disguise” are related to this dialectical approach.
DETAILED>>This term refers collectively to the four Confucian classics: The Analects, Mencius, The Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean. The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean originally were two sections of The Book of Rites, but before the Tang Dynasty they did not attract much attention. Following the revival of Confucianism which began in the Tang and Song dynasties, through the advocacy of Han Yu (768-824) and Li Ao (772-836) of the Tang Dynasty, Cheng Hao (1032-1085), Cheng Yi (1033-1107) and Zhu Xi (1130-1200) of the Song Dynasty, The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean were given new meaning. Their standing
This term means the four images, or features of the four images, which are engendered through the division of the two modes in the process of the formation of the eight trigrams. As explained in The Book of Changes, “Changes involve taiji (太极 the supreme ultimate), which produces two modes. The two modes generate the four images, and the four images generate the eight trigrams.” The four images are distinct from one another while also mutually related. There was no agreement among ancient scholars with regard to what the four images represent. From the point of view of the coming into being of all things, the four images might stand for the four seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter; or four basic elements: metal, wood, water, and fire. Alternatively, as a term in divination, the four images could refer to the four stalks in each group when the divination stalks are divided in a fortune-telling exercise, or to four line images for divination: greater yin, greater yang, lesser yin, and lesser yang.
DETAILED>>The four initiators are buds of four virtues: ren (仁), yi (义), li (礼), and zhi (智), or roughly benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom, which Mencius （372？-289 BC） believed were all rooted in man’s mind. Commiseration is the initiator of benevolence. Shame is the initiator of righteousness. Deference is the initiator of propriety and a sense of right and wrong is the initiator of wisdom. The four initiators are naturally possessed by man. They are fundamental features defining a human being. Man should fully cultivate and develop his inherent kindness, then he can accomplish the four virtues, and consequently become a man of virtue or even a sage.
DETAILED>>Four Seas refer to the territory of China or the entire world. The ancient Chinese believed that China was a land surrounded by Four Seas – the East, West, North, and South seas. The term suggests what the ancient Chinese conceived to be the map of China and the world: Nine zhou (regions) were located at the center of tianxia (all under heaven). Tianxia consisted of nine zhou and its surrounding Four Seas. China was within the Four Seas, while foreign lands were outside the Four Seas. In ancient China, Four Seas referred to all under heaven in most cases, and did not denote a specific body of water. Therefore, the term was used sometimes to mean the seas surrounding the land, and sometimes to specify the land surrounded by the Four Seas.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to the four tones (the level tone, falling-rising tone, falling tone and checked tone) and the eight rhythmical errors. The conscious use of these tones and the avoidance of these errors were metrical norms for poetry creation proposed by the literati of the Qi and Liang reigns of the Southern Dynasties, such as Shen Yue ( 441-513 ). Chinese tones in even earlier times remain controversial in academic circles. By the time of Qi and Liang, however, Zhou Yong, Shen Yue and others for the first time defined the four tones of the Chinese language - the level tone, falling-rising tone, falling tone, and checked tone. In addition, Shen Yue proposed pairing the five sounds with the four tones. Thereafter, the literati have actively used them in their poetry to perfect the sound and mood. Shen also found that improper use of the four tones would lead to eight rhythmical errors, such as pingtou (平头overlapping tones at the beginning), shangwei (上尾repeated tonesat the end), fengyao (蜂腰 the use of characters with the same tone which makes the poem resemble what he likened to a wasp's waist), and hexi (鹤膝 the use of characters with the same tone which makes the poem resemble a crane's knee). These errors in poetry should be avoided as much as possible. “Overlapping tones at the beginning" refers to the first and the sixth characters or the second and the seventh characters in two related lines in a five-character poem having overlapping tones. This was considered to have violated the rules. “Repeated tone at the end" refers to the fifth and the tenth characters in two related lines of a five-character poem having the same tone. Several other errors list similar rhythmical problems.The concept of four tones and eight rhythmical errors was a major advancement in the theory of Chinese phonology, but the concept was too restrictive to use in practice. Therefore, it was opposed by many people at the time because they believed that it hindered the natural beauty of rhythms and rhymes in poetry creation. In the Tang Dynasty, the literati refined the concept to form the theory of level and oblique tones, cutting the requirement of four tones to a requirement of two, making the composition of poems easier, thus greatly improving the rules and forms for the so-called modern-style classical poetry. Among these people Du Fu's poetry creation is a perfect model.
DETAILED>>Fraternal duty is obedience to, and love and respect for one’s elder brother. To observe this, the younger brother must follow an elder brother’s guidance and orders. Fraternal duty should be rooted in the heartfelt love and respect for an elder brother. Confucians often speak of “fraternal duty” and “filial piety” together, believing that together they are the foundation for cultivating personal moral integrity, and are the basis for maintaining and strengthening family ethics, extending even to the political order.
DETAILED>>The term describes a state of mind one achieves when appreciating an artwork, in which process one’s inner feelings interact freely and joyfully with nature. In particular, it describes one’s aesthetic experience of appreciating landscape paintings and landscape poems, when one feels absorbed with the natural scenes and images depicted. In his “On the Creation of Landscape Painting,” Zong Bing (375-443), painter of the Southern Dynasties, pointed out that by watching landscape paintings, one can appreciate the philosophy and pleasure which sages of past times drew from landscape. When doing so, one becomes oblivious to the external world and is totally free from worldly considerations, thus achieving full satisfaction of both body and mind. This term not only reveals the unique aesthetic function of landscape paintings, landscape poems, and natural beauty, but also demonstrates traditional literature and arts’ pursuit of harmony between nature and man and between mind and heart.
DETAILED>>It means to clear mundane desires from one's mind so as to move freely in the world. This expression comes from Zhuangzi, in which it is proposed by way of a conversation between an official named Shinan Yiliao and the Duke of Lu. It is argued in this conversation that people can trace the origin of their worries to their desire for external objects as well as their concern over gain and loss. Therefore, to rid themselves of worry and concern, people must overcome their greed. Only by freeing oneself from extraneous concerns can one adapt to the vicissitudes of life without being burdened and harmed by anything external. Such an attitude to life is what is meant by freeing one's mind to enjoy the world.
DETAILED>>Freehand brushwork is one of the traditional methods of brushwork expression in Chinese painting. Using abbreviated and willful brushwork, the artist suggests graphically the meaning and character of the object and its shape. The chief aim is to give rein to the artist’s subjective state and mood. It stresses flexibility in brushwork, unrestrained by unimportant details and rejecting naturalistic effects (in contrast with meticulous painting). This style of painting, while seemingly coarse and whimsical, is in fact highly conscious of, and strictly consistent with, standards of artistic creation. Besides demanding close observation and experience of natural objects prior to painting, such as that the various forms within the picture will be laid out appropriately, it also demands solid technical proficiency in order that the artistic intent be formed in imagination before taking shape in painting. Freehand brushwork is divided into greater freehand and lesser freehand, with the former often employing the ink-splashing technique. It had a significant influence on the production of operas and the development of acting techniques in later ages. The freehand style in Chinese-style opera is shown through consciously artificial, stylized motions, accompanied by singing and dancing, to present images artistically on the stage.
DETAILED>>Literally, this term means to reverse the state of one being hung upside down. It originated from Zhuangzi. The author Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) found that people tend to look at other people or things from their own positions, and they thus develop biased views about others and the world. Their mind is consequently in a state of tension. To Zhuangzi, this state of mind of clinging to one’s prejudice is like one being bound and hung upside down. So, breaking free from subjective bias is like freeing one from this state of tension.
DETAILED>>This term means to be friendly and kind to each other in peaceful co-existence. You (友) in its ancient ideographic form consists of two hands extending in the same direction, metaphorically indicating common interest and offering a helping hand to each other. Shan (善) means to be gracious and kind. When these two Chinese characters are used together as in the current term, they denote a close and harmonious relationship among people, a bond that transcends blood ties. This kind of bond is based on the principle of righteousness commonly upheld by all parties involved. To date, as a hallmark of good character and ethical conduct, friendliness is still deemed as an essential element in the value system for building a harmonious and ideal society.
DETAILED>>Pengyou (朋友) are people who are not kin but share the same aspirations and sentiments and can help each other. Representing a close social relationship between these people, friendship is one of the “five relationships” among humans defined by Confucianism, namely, relationships between father and son, sovereign and subject, husband and wife, elder brother and younger brother, and between friends. Peng (朋) originally was an ancient monetary unit resembling two bunches of shells or jade stringed together. It was extended to mean disciples who follow the same teacher, namely, people who study together to improve each other’s knowledge and moral behavior. An ancient ideographic form of the character you (友) was two hands reaching in the same direction, which means comrades sharing the same interests and goals. The creation and fostering of this relationship is crucial to forming the society beyond blood ties, and to forming one’s character as well. For this reason, the Chinese have always revered moral standards as their fundamental principle and integrity as the basic norm governing their relationships. This applies to both relationships between people and relations among countries.
DETAILED>>Poems of this kind depicted frontier scenery as well as fighting along the northern border area and the life of soldiers garrisoned there. These poems described the scenic splendor north of the Great Wall, fierce war scenes, or hardships endured by frontier guards. Some of the works were about soldiers’ agony caused by long separation from families and about their homesickness, but many such poems also extolled their patriotism. Some of the works voiced the longing for reunion of women left at home when husbands and sons went to the frontier. Frontier poems showed the poets’ attitude towards and reflections on war, highlighting the tension between valuing individual lives and the need to respond to call to duty. The most compelling frontier poems were written in the Tang Dynasty. Frontier poems of later generations could not rival the powerful expression of Tang frontier poems.
DETAILED>>Zongji (总集) is a collection of various authors’ poems and proses (distinct from bieji〔别集〕, a collection of a particular author’s literary works). In terms of content, an anthology could be either comprehensive or limited in selection. Chronically, an anthology can be a general collection spanning written history, or a general collection from one dynasty. In terms of the genre of collected works, it can be divided into collections of a specific genre and collections of various genres. The most representative anthology is Selections of Refined Literature compiled and edited jointly by Xiao Tong (501-
531, Crown Prince Zhaoming of the Liang Dynasty during the Southern Dynasties) and his literary advisors. Selections of Refined Literature consists of more than 700 outstanding literary pieces of various genres from pre-Qin through the early Liang. It does not include any work that belongs to the categories of jing (经 Confucian classics), shi (史 history), or zi (子thoughts of ancient scholars and schools), but does include a small number of prefaces, commentaries, and eulogies from shi. Selections of Refined Literature reflects the literary trend of the time and exerted a far-reaching impact on the
development of Chinese literature in the years to come.
DETAILED>>
In this expression, chang (常) means “ordinary,” “common,” or “normal,”together with “constant” and “unchanging.” Shi (识) here refers to what is known, understood, or experienced. General knowledge is the social consensus on the basic matters of everyday life and the commonly shared spiritual background that is unknowingly assumed by the community. During Japan’s Meiji Era, some Japanese scholars used 常识 to render the English phrase “common sense,”which spread to China at the end of the Qing Dynasty. Its meaning is opposite to that of “specialized knowledge.” Besides, “general knowledge” has moral implications, and has been upheld as the criterion or measure for telling right from wrong and good from evil, and for deciding whether to advance or retreat and making various choices. Today, the expression mainly refers to the basic knowledge a normal person should have. Its ancient and modern meanings are connected.
DETAILED>>A general name is used to refer to everything in the same category. It is a term used by Xunzi (313?-238BC)，and its opposite is “distinct name.” A name should denote the nature of a thing. Things with similar properties can be grouped together under a “general name.” These, together with other things with different general names but still sharing some common properties, can have a higher-level “general name”. The highest-level “general name” is called “broad general name.”
Sheng (生), literally meaning “give birth” or “generate,” describes the process of transformation from nonexistence to existence. In ancient times, many believed that all things in nature were generated from certain overarching dynamics of the cosmos, including tian (heaven), dao (the way), li (principles), qi (vital force), and wu (void); while some others believed that all things were self-generating, not dependent on external forces. During the process of sheng, all things acquire their initial qualities, functions, and procedures for continuation. For such creatures as humans, birds, beasts, and plants in particular, sheng signifies the attainment of life, making the word also synonymous with “life.”The instinctive qualities, functions, and procedures resulting from sheng exert an inner influence on the existence of all things. These aspects constitute the basis on which people establish and maintain the order of their lives, as well as the factors they have to confront.
DETAILED>>The term literally means to get the doors, windows and even the whole house fixed before it rains. Choumou (绸缪) means “wrap and bind” with an extended meaning of “repair.” The term is a metaphorical way of saying to get ready for any unexpected events beforehand. It does not mean to prevent accidents from happening, but to prepare for possible occurrences rather than reacting to something “unexpected.” It requires that people should not be limited by what they see in the current situation, but be able to anticipate possible changes or future situations and get prepared ahead of time. It is similar to the concepts “think forward and deep” and “prepare for an accident before it happens.” The term underscores proactive behavior on the part of people or the changing nature of an overall dynamic situation.
DETAILED>>The term is used to describe an excessively exquisite artistic work as if it were an object painted in bright colors and inlaid with gold and silver. In the literary context, it refers to poems written in a highly rhetorical style. Aesthetically, what is “gilded and colored” is considered undesirable, and the style of “lotus rising out of water” is preferred. The former focuses only on external form and appearance, whereas the latter, as a natural presentation of aesthetic ideas, penetrates appearances and brings out the essence.
DETAILED>>This belief is advocated by Mencius（372？-289 BC）. He holds that upholding righteousness is an essential attribute of a dignified man, and without it one would lose his moral standing. Life is precious, but survival should not be the only thing that is important in life. When one faces a choice between saving life and upholding righteousness, he should give life to uphold righteousness.
DETAILED>>The term means to ensure that the people live and work in peace and contentment. The ancients believed that this was the basic responsibility and main purpose of the state and of those governing it. A peaceful and satisfied populace results in widespread support for the rulers, making governance less costly and more effective. The heart of the concept is to guarantee the genuine interests of the people, and to identify and correct failings in both policies and procedures in a timely way. The expression mirrors the concept “people are the foundation of the state.
DETAILED>>The notion of adjusting one’s actions to the “times” comes from The Book of Changes. The “times” refer to the opportunities or chances that present themselves as human activities progress. In the circumstances determined by the times, one should choose correspondingly suitable methods of handling affairs. The appearance and disappearance of opportunities and chances, and their impact on human affairs reflect the principles of the way of heaven and human affairs. People should recognize and keep pace with the change of the times and adapt in agreement with the times.
DETAILED>>It is just as bad to go beyond a given standard as to fall short of it. Confucian scholars use rites as the standards both for individuals’ words and actions, and for their relationship with everything in the world. They also judge people’s words or actions against the requirements of the rites to see whether they have gone too far or fallen short. Confucius (551-479 BC) evaluated one of his students as “going too far” and another as “falling short,” considering them to be the same in both failing the requirements set by the rites. If a person can follow the middle way by not going too far or falling short, then he has achieved the virtue of “the Golden Mean.”
DETAILED>>This is one of the traditional Chinese music notation methods. In the Ming and Qing dynasties it was named Gong-che notation, which was derived from the informal-character notation of the banquet music in the Tang Dynasty and the simplified-character notation in the Song and Yuan dynasties, with ten Chinese characters such as gong (工) and che (尺) as the symbols of the syllable names, in which shang (上), che (尺), gong (工), fan (凡), liu (六), wu (五), and yi (乙) correspond to do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, and si (or ti) in the modern music score respectively. The gong-che notation indicates the key name in front of the music to determine the actual pitch of each note, and uses measure symbols to indicate the dynamic and time value of the note. However, the gong-chenotation records the backbone of the melody and can only retain the main features and framework of the melody. The gong-che notations used in different places and dynasties were not uniform. Therefore, the music was not always very accurate when sung according to the score, and was quite variable. This feature also left creative space for traditional artists when passing on their skills.
DETAILED>>This term means acting in good faith. Good faith is one of the principal ethical standards one should observe in order to establish oneself in society. However, one must comply with ethical principles in honoring a promise. If a promise goes against ethical principles, one should not blindly deliver it. Confucianism stresses the importance of acting in good faith for both rulers and people: A ruler must keep his promises made to the people so that they will abide by his decrees; one should be honest and truthful towards friends.
DETAILED>>This refers to efficient governance and harmonious people. Efficient governance means that the policies and decrees of the government are followed in all respects, and political affairs are handled in a smooth and effective way. The term “harmonious people” means that people are happy about their affairs, and commoners and officials are united and of one mind. It is close in meaning to the concept of “stable country and peaceful people.” However, this term puts more emphasis on the role of human agency, and the reciprocal relation between efficient governance and harmonious people.
The term is an abbreviation of an expression meaning public governance and support for the people. Jing (经) means managing state and social affairs in an orderly manner; ji (济) means helping people who are in difficulty. This dual-pronged approach to governance is aimed at making the nation and society prosperous and ensuring that the people live in peace and contentment. The concept of jingji (经济) embodies the goals and principles followed by traditional Chinese intellectuals in the pursuit of scholarship and learning, and reflects their commitment to apply learning to the service of the country and for the benefit of the people. In modern times, the term is used to mean “economy,” namely, social activities that create, transfer or realize value, and satisfy people’s material and cultural needs.
DETAILED>>Governance of a state should be guided by virtue. Confucius （551-479 BC） expounded this philosophy – which his followers in later eras promoted – on the basis of the approach advocated by the rulers in the Western Zhou Dynasty that prized high moral values and the virtue of being cautious in meting out punishment. Governance based on virtue stands in contrast to rule by use of harsh punishment as a deterrent. It does not, however, exclude the use of punishment, but rather highlights the decisive role of virtue in governance, and regards moral edification both as the fundamental principle and the essential means for achieving good governance.
DETAILED>>This term, first mentioned inGuanzi, refers to being aloof in exercising governance. It is regarded as representing the doctrines of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi. This school of thought built on Laozi’s concept of non-action and held that a ruler should avoid using political power to interfere with the people’s daily life. Rather, he should be aloof so that the people would follow their own ways and practices and live and work in a natural way.
DETAILED>>Zheng (政), or governance, refers to policy and managing the country, while zheng (正), or rectitude, refers to adherence to principle, decent behavior, and handling matters with fairness. This term has two meanings. First, it emphasizes that those who govern should adhere to principle, behave correctly, and handle matters with fairness. Second, it emphasizes that at a moral level, those who govern should be strict with themselves, that they should play an exemplary role and thus show their subordinates and the people how to follow the right path and comply with social norms. It is a concrete expression of the idea “rule by man” and “governing by virtue” in ancient times.
DETAILED>>An unchanging principle underpinning the governance of a country is that it should deliver benefits to the people. Here, “the governance of a country” refers to establishing systems of governance and policies, and issuing decrees; “delivering benefits to the people” means safeguarding the interests of the people and doing what is best for them. This is another expression of the traditional Chinese notion of “putting the people first.” Today, it is behind the thinking of putting the people above everything else and satisfying their desire for a better life.
DETAILED>>Governing a big country is like cooking small fish. This is a fundamental principle of state governance based on the concept of “non-action” advocated by Laozi. When cooking small fish, one needs to mix various kinds of ingredients, carefully control time of cooking and degree of heating, so that every small fish is equally tasty. One should not stir the fish too much in cooking so that they will not fall apart into small pieces. Similarly, as a big country has a vast territory, a large population, and wide differences among regions and social groups, those who govern the land must be meticulous and thoughtful and take all factors into consideration, so that their policies and measures benefit everyone. Once fundamental policies for governance are adopted, those who govern should not intervene excessively in social activities.
DETAILED>>This term comes from the traditional Chinese theory of literary creation. It first appeared in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties. Rebutting the way some men of letters had since Wei and Jin times taken to faking emotions or arguments just for the sake of writing, and relying on all kinds of flowery language to disguise the emptiness of content, Liu discussed in brief the relation between form and content. Assuming the idea of mingling graceful wording with substance propounded in The Analects, he advocated giving equal value to content and form. His belief was that a balance should be struck between these two, and meaning should not be sacrificed in the pursuit of beauty in form. This concept had great impact on the literary creation theory of the Tang and Song dynasties.
DETAILED>>According to the Confucian belief of unity of heaven and humanity, all human activities conform with the laws governing celestial and terrestrial movement. The creation of qi (vital energy), the product of the convergence of all the natural elements between heaven and earth, generates and nurtures all living things. With this in mind, sages composed grand pieces of music, thereby giving rise to the idea that grand music reflects harmony between heaven, earth, and all things. This concept and the concept that grand rites reflect the movement of heaven and earth complement each other. The latter one means sages formulate grand rites in accordance with the order of heaven, earth, and all things and the norms governing them. The complementary functions of music and rites play a major role in pacifying and unifying the minds of the people and safeguarding and maintaining public order. According to Confucianism, human beings, deities and ghosts as well as all other living things may undergo changes but will never deviate from the fundamental norms governing their movement, thus everything is in its proper place.
DETAILED>>This saying comes from the book Xunzi, which is named after the philosopher Xunzi (313?–238BC). He believed that heaven and mankind each have their own duties and that the operations of heaven, earth and human affairs follow their respective laws. In this sense, we should not consider either societal peace and turbulence or fortune and misfortune as the reward or punishment of heaven. Hence Xunzi opposed extolling or even ingratiating oneself with heaven in exchange for benefit. He also pointed out that in the course of natural evolution heaven nourishes all things and endows humans with their body, emotion, and desire. Therefore, one needs to grasp the endowments of heaven and make use of them in accordance with the laws.
DETAILED>>This expression refers to a cognitive state which is completely clear and penetrating. It was proposed by Xunzi (313?-238 BC). He felt that people could understand human relations in daily life through the use of the “mind” (xin心), but the mind was often clouded by various factors. Xunzi advocated lifting the clouds by keeping the mind open, concentrated and tranquil, which would lead to a clear and penetrating understanding of human relations in daily life. Such a cognitive state is that of great clarity and brightness.
DETAILED>>This expression often goes with the concept “adversities reinforce a nation’s resilience.” The latter depicts a nation while the former applies to an individual. Stating that trials and tribulations can open one’s mind and stimulate the development of great wisdom, the expression reminds people to be proactive rather than reactive in the face of given circumstances. When things are favorable, one should be alert and prepared for potential risks. In the face of adversity, one should manage to open one’s mind and be optimistic. Stressing subjective initiative and self-reliance, this mentality gives full play to one’s talent or potential to tide over tough times.
DETAILED>>A great healer can treat the ills of a country. shangyi (上医) is a skillful, first-rate doctor; “to heal a country” is to treat and eliminate its various ills. Originally this expression was used to describe how a great statesman resolved the various problems and flaws in a country’s governance, in the same way a patient's sickness was treated. It now also describes how the expertise of a great doctor can help a country prevent and control major illnesses (such as infectious diseases), thereby ensuring the well-being of the people. The term encompasses two basic concepts: first, there are parallels between healing a country and healing a disease; second, in addition to possessing outstanding skills, a doctor must have both a desire to save people and a concern for the country.
DETAILED>>This is a term used to describe someone of ideal moral quality. How much one achieves does not determine whether he can be called a great man. The criterion is whether or not a person can know and hold fast to Dao. Given that there are different interpretations of Dao, the specific requirements for a great man are also different. Mencius (372?-289 BC) stresses that a great man should have high aspirations to carry out Dao, adhere to moral integrity, stay upright, and his observation of Dao should not be influenced by external matters (as opposed to his inner world). Yet, another ancient Chinese philosopher Laozi believes that a great man should abandon ostentatious rites and norms, and return to the natural state through non-action.
DETAILED>>The best physicians start treatment before the outbreak of an illness. Shanggong (上工) means skillful, first-rate doctors; weibing (未病) is when the slightest symptoms appear but before the actual onset of an illness. This important principle of Chinese medicine requires a doctor to have a thorough command of pathology and medicine, as well as an exceptional ability to anticipate, judge and manage the signs, nature and course of a disease. This enables early discovery, early prevention and early treatment, the essence of which is prevention – preventing the outbreak, metastasis, development and transmission of a disease. This is a fundamental concept of Chinese health and medicine, an example of Chinese wisdom in “preparing for rain before a storm” and “guarding against disaster before it occurs.”
The most popular and most fundamental truths, principles, and methodologies tend to be expressed in simple words and are easy to understand. Dadao (大道) means great truth, or universally applicable laws governing nature and society, or the fundamental principles for people to follow in treating nature and governing society. The Chinese character jian (简) means simple, concise, and easy. The term is often used to describe the governance of a state and management of society. It has two primary meanings. First, it means that the most popular and fundamental truths should be expressed in simple words so that ordinary people can easily understand and put them into practice. Second, dadao is not something separate and far away from reality. Rather, it is a practical ethical principle which is easy for people to follow in their daily lives. As long as one sees through the seemingly complicated superficialities and traces the source of things, one will be able to grasp the fundamental truths, discover the basic rules, and comprehend them in spite of the complexity.
DETAILED>>This concept places importance on the unity of national ideology and law. It was put forward by Dong Zhongshu (179-104 BC) of the Western Han Dynasty as an underlying theme of The Spring and Autumn Annals. In his view, the state needs a uniform legal system, but to achieve such unity, different schools of thought must be unified first. Without a unified ideology, people will not know which one to follow. Dong believed that Confucianism should be the one and only governing ideology for a nation. In his opinion, the unity of law and ideology should be an enduring principle .
The greatest virtue is just like water, nurturing all things without competing with them. This term was first used by Laozi to advocate the belief that a virtuous ruler should govern with gentle and accommodating qualities as demonstrated by water. He should assist and provide for people just like what the water does, instead of competing with them for resources. Later, this term came to mean that people should nourish all things as water does and try their best to help people without seeking fame or profit. It also refers to human virtues such as endurance for the sake of achieving a noble goal and modesty.
DETAILED>>This term refers to desolate and barren landscapes described or portrayed in classical poems or paintings that convey a feeling of loneliness and desolation. During the Tang and Song dynasties, some poets who were either exiled or sent to work at border garrisons did not only dwell in desolate places but also felt the dire bleakness within as they saw no hope for their future and they were being unappreciated and unrecognized for what they were worth. As a result, in their poetry they would create bleak, desolate scenes with a view to expressing their perseverance and determination to maintain personal integrity. In doing so they created a unique artistic method capable of transcending reality. Paintings depicting grim, desolate scenes suggest the lonely communication of man with nature, expressing as well the integration of man with nature. Such poems and paintings represent a kind of taste and style characteristic of Chinese culture.
DETAILED>>Qun (群) means a group or to form a group. A qun consists of people gathered together within defined limits. The formation of groups is a fundamental state of human existence. Among human groups, various relations and hierarchies will form between individuals and between individuals and the group. An orderly group can provide the security necessary for survival of individuals. At the same time, good and stable group order is an important condition for the continuous flourishing and development of the group.
DETAILED>>Cheng (成), meaning “grow” or “consummate” as a verb, describes the gradual growth of things towards consummation. All things possess innate qualities and abilities from their birth or generation. However, for such creatures as humans, birds, beasts, and plants, these qualities and abilities need to be continually developed during their existence, so that they can approach or achieve consummation. In ancient times, some philosophers laid emphasis on individual growth, while others stressed the importance of external guidance or instruction for individual growth. Additionally, cheng can also connote “accomplishment” in various fields and career pursuits.
DETAILED>>To act based on morality and justice, that is, to manage major political and military matters according to the principles of morality and justice. In ancient Chinese political discourse, it was never right to suggest that power could be exercised arbitrarily. On the contrary, it was expected that there should be a legitimate basis for the creation of power, and that power would be exercised according to moral precepts. The ancient Chinese always attached great importance to this point. Morality and justice overrode and regulated power – such was the political ecology they highly esteemed.
DETAILED>>A country’s internal affairs must be handled well before its external affairs can be handled well. Zhinei (治内) means that domestic governance has achieved an ideal state; caiwai (裁外) means assessing the broad trends in the world, making external policies, and selecting appropriate political, diplomatic, and military measures to influence the international situation. This tells us a basic principle: a country’s internal governance is the foundation of its external strategy.
DETAILED>>This term means to help people by practicing medicine. “Hanging a gourd” refers to the tradition of using gourd containing medications as a sign for those practicing and selling medicines; it is used more broadly to refer to those in the medical profession. “Helping the world” means providing aid and relief to those in distress. This concept elevates the practice of medicine above ordinary occupations and livelihoods, and imbues it with humanistic caring. It praises the deeds of physicians who care for the sick and dying, and is also a moral standard and value by which they should measure themselves.
DETAILED>>Different sounds produced when eight musical instruments made of gold, stone, earth, leather, silk, wood, gourd and bamboo are played together create harmonious music. This term comes from The Book of History. The term, which stresses that different tunes produced by the eight musical instruments should be blended in a harmonious way to create beautiful melody, epitomizes the pursuit of harmony of ancient Chinese music. Music gives expression to people’s sentiments; the eight different sounds relate to people’s different frames of mind, and can become a way of enlightenment. The term means that people can achieve peace of mind by listening to different kinds of music and should think and act in keeping with what the rites and music require of them. The phrase also implies that different people and groups can all voice their views, but should abide by common rules so as to maintain harmonious ties among them.
DETAILED>>The ancient Chinese believed that coexistence of different things and a stable order among them could not be realized by eliminating their differences; such coexistence could be achieved only by seeking to get along in harmony on the basis of respecting and preserving individual differences. That is what is meant by “harmony.” In such a way, different things can develop themselves while complementing each other, stimulating the vitality of both individuals and all.
DETAILED>>This term implies mutual coordination and friendship. The
Chinese term hexie (和谐) originally referred
to the simultaneous combination of different tones that gave rise to a musical
work. Later it came to mean a state of governance in which there are good
social relations of coexistence based on respect for differences and diversity.
In such a society, all people give free rein to their talent and find their
proper place to live together in harmony, order and health. Hexie is a
core Confucian ethical principle for dealing with interpersonal relationship
and guiding social and political activities. It now generally refers to the
harmonious, peaceful, and amicable relationship between people, between groups,
and between countries. Harmony represents the Chinese cultural value of
opposing violence and conflicts and cherishing peace and order.
Make harmony a top priority. He (和) indicates congruity and appropriateness. It is a state of congenial co-existence on the basis of due respect for differences and diversity. At first, this phrase referred to the role of li (礼rites / social norms) which is to keep citizens of distinct social status co-existing in a harmonious way, with everybody having his or her own place and staying there contentedly for mutual benefits, resulting in a “harmonious yet diverse” society. It is an important moral concept of the Confucian school in managing inter-personal relations. The term later evolved to refer in general to harmonious, congenial, peaceful, and agreeable relationships among people, groups, and states. It epitomizes the “civil” nature of the Chinese people, who oppose violent conflicts and aspire for peace and harmony.
DETAILED>>The notion that harmony begets new things was advanced by Grand Astrologer Shibo in the late Western Zhou Dynasty. He believed different things, when coexisting in harmony, would complement each other and beget new things. When applied to political governance, this concept requires those in power to preserve the particular features of different people and things and allow them to flourish. This nurtures the growth of new things and promotes the development of society.
DETAILED>>A literary work should be beautiful in wording and solid in content. Xian (衔) means “hold in one’s mouth,” and pei (佩), “put on.” Hua (华) originally meant a “flower” and figuratively stood for “elegant language” or “formal beauty.” Shi (实) originally meant “fruit” and figuratively signified “fullness of content.” A concept in ancient literary crticism, it has been widely accepted over the centuries that an ideal work of art gives equal weight to content and form. This is an essential principle governing the writing of prose and poetry since ancient times. It originates from the example of the sages' works. Some works prioritize formal beauty and others focus on fullness of content. Likewise, different writers have different aesthetic tastes. But overall, a balance should be struck between these two merits. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties established this principle on the basis of the works of the sages. While opposing formalism, he nevertheless recognized the value of formal beauty and technique.
The term means achieving overall harmonious co-existence on the basis of respecting differences and diversity. Uniformity and harmony are two different attitudes to treating and accommodating social groups. Uniformity means obliterating differences in everything while harmony is to keep and respect the differences. Allowing different things to complement and supplement each other will create a harmonious whole full of vitality and creativity.
DETAILED>>The harmony of music comes from its appropriateness and its concordance with the soul. “Harmony” refers to how different sounds are combined and attuned to each other. “Appropriateness” refers to the pitch and timbre of the music itself, as well as to the degree to which the listener can accept the music. This term highlights the need for harmony and accord between the object—music—and the subject—the soul, in order for music to be appreciated. The beauty of music is generated by harmony between the subjective and the objective.
DETAILED>>This term means that one should be broad-minded and care for all things and people. Ancient Chinese believed that with its topography and other natural features being generous and peaceful, the earth sustained all things in the world, allowing them to grow and develop in keeping with their own nature. Men of virtue model themselves on the earth, and just like the earth, care for all things and fellow human beings with open heart and virtue. This embodies the pursuit of moral cultivation and harmony among people and between people and nature. It represents the Chinese views and ideals on governance and human relationship, which were inspired by the formation and features of mountains and rivers in China. Together with the notion of constantly exerting oneself for self-improvement, it forms the fundamental character of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>The term means to have love for the people, and cherish all things in the world. Here wu (物) includes plants and animals, while ai (爱) implies using them in a measured and appropriate way. This was first proposed by Mencius （372？-289 BC） who differentiated natural emotions as: a love for close family, a broad compassion for other people, and a sense of cherishing for plants and animals. The love could be close or distant, but a person of virtue always begins with love of close relatives, which then extends to other people and eventually to all things in the world. Though this feeling starts within the family, it should extend beyond it, even beyond the human race to include plants and animals, to become a broad love. The goal is to achieve harmony within oneself, with others and with nature. Zhang Zai’s （1020-1077）concept that “all people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions” is very similar.
DETAILED>>The notion that having a feeling of shame gives rise to courage comes from the saying that “to have a feeling of shame is to be near to having courage.” Having a feeling of shame means to be ashamed of one’s own mistakes as well as to hate the misbehavior of others. Mencius （372？-289 BC） believed this to be one of the basic things humans must do. In Confucian thought courage is one of three universal virtues along with wisdom and love for others. Linking shame and courage was meant to impel people to face their shortcomings squarely and work hard for improvement and perfection. The concept embodies the spirit of individuals, companies, organizations, ethnic groups, and the whole nation in achieving self-respect, self-motivation, and self-improvement.
DETAILED>>Yu (欲) means desire people have when they are attracted by external objects. Such desire, as the condition necessary for existence, should be suitably met. However, excessive desire is detrimental to one’s life and will lead to a decline in public moral and result in social chaos. So both Confucianism and Daoism are against excessive desire. In addition, in Daoist thinking, “having no excessive desire” refers to Dao’s attitude towards everything and how those in power should handle their relations with the common people. Daoism believes that those in power should suppress their desire and refrain from arousing people’s desire.
DETAILED>>As opposed to wudai (无待 having nothing to depend on), youdai (有待) literally means “having something to depend on.” The concept comes from Zhuangzi. The author Zhuangzi (369?-286BC) believed that both humans and things are never independent of their surroundings and thus are subject to external restrictions. In other words, they always “have something to depend on.” In this sense, youdai reveals the interconnection and interdependence between all things that exist. Only when a person is able to detach himself from his surroundings and clear his mind of all external constraints and encumbrances can he attain the free and unhindered state of wudai.
DETAILED>>The term means that those who win the hearts of the people or get the service of the talented will rise while those who lose the hearts of the people or fail to get the talented people will perish. Ren (人) stands for people’s hearts as well as people’s talents. This saying, which comes from Records of the Historian, has two connotations. First, the rise and fall of a country or government depend on winning people’s hearts. Only by winning people’s hearts and responding to their wishes can a country or government continue to thrive.
A person who repeatedly acts immorally will only end up in total failure. Buyi (不 义) is an act which violates the principles of yi (义 righteousness). Righteousness is the moral code broadly accepted by a society； it is synonymous with yi (宜 propriety), meaning the observance of what is fit and proper. The Chinese have championed righteousness since ancient times, believing that all acts, whether those of individuals or of a nation, should be based on righteousness. Anyone who breaks laws, harms the country or the people, or commits numerous acts of wrongdoing will come to no good end.
DETAILED>>The term originally meant the head of a person. Metaphorically, it refers to the Son of Heaven, or the ruler. The ancient Chinese likened the power structure of a country to the body of a person, with the ruler functioning as its head, the officials as its body. The ruler was highly esteemed and the most important person, often exerting a crucial influence on the fate of a country. Yet, the ruler and his officials were parts of the same body. They depended on each other, worked collaboratively, handled state affairs together, and shared a common stake. Such an understanding was a nascent view that considered a country as an integral whole. Since modern times began, this term has come to mean the leader of a country, whether an emperor or a king who has inherited the throne, or the elected president of a country. 引例 Citations：
DETAILED>>The heart, a vital organ of life, underpins one’s emotions, awareness, and value judgments. Different from the ears, eyes, nose, and mouth, which sense the outer world in a passive way, the heart is capable of thinking and performing intellectual and moral evaluations on the basis of analyzing and sorting out what these organs have sensed. Mencius (372?-289 BC) believed that the heart consists of four aspects: compassion, deference, sense of shame or detestation, and conscience. Preserving and expanding one’s good heart is the central aim in practicing moral teachings. According to Daoism, a serene and uncluttered heart is the highest state for a human being, much like a peaceful pool of still water. Such calmness is the way in which the heart can capture the essence of all things in the world.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a situation in which people understand each other without the need to utter a single word. It generally means the spontaneous understanding reached by close friends who share common interests, aspirations, and dispositions. In particular, it refers to an aesthetic state in which the subject and the object interact with each other smoothly with no barrier between them, or in which an artist creates a marvelous image and a viewer appreciates it with emotion and understanding. The culmination of such an experience is joy and satisfaction derived from the perfect harmony between the human heart and its surroundings.
DETAILED>>The term represents a world outlook and a way of thinking which hold that heaven and earth and man are interconnected. This world outlook emphasizes the integration and inherent relationship between heaven, earth, and man. It highlights the fundamental significance of nature to man or human affairs, and describes the endeavor made by man to pursue life, order, and values through interaction with nature. The term has different ways of expression in history, such as heaven and man are of the same category, sharing the same vital energy, or sharing the same principles. Mencius（372？-289 BC）, for one, believed that through mental reflection one could gain understanding of human nature and heaven, emphasizing the unity of mind, human nature, and heaven. Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty sought to connect the principles of heaven, human nature, and the human mind. Laozi maintained that “man’s law is earthly, earth’s law is natural, and heaven’s law is dao.” Depending on a different understanding of heaven and man, the term may have different meanings.
DETAILED>>This term first appears in The Book of Songs. It means that there is no one who can forever remain a recipient of the bestowed supreme power by the Ruler of Heaven. The ancients believed that the heavenly order determined to whom the supreme royal power belonged. However, the choice of the recipient of such a conferment was not forever. Replacement of the Shang Dynasty by the Zhou Dynasty was brought about by the change of the recipient of Heaven’s bestowal of the mandate to rule. However, the change of the recipients of the mandate followed a fixed principle: such bestowal could fall only on a ruler who was virtuous. Once he had lost virtue, the mandate to rule would be withdrawn from him. Therefore, the concept of the change of the recipient of Heaven’s mandate served as a warning to the ruler, who must constantly cultivate his virtue in order to keep his rule.
DETAILED>>Tianxiang (天象) signifies the various phenomena appearing in the sky, with xiang (象) denoting a visible event of an incorporeal objective presence. The ancient Chinese believed that both celestial bodies, such as the sun, moon, and stars, and meteorological symbols, such as wind, rain, thunder, and lightning, are not corporeal. Therefore, the phenomena manifested by their movement or occurrence are called tianxiang, the heavenly phenomena. Through observation and interpretation of the heavenly phenomena, the ancients attempted to explain the course and norms underlying the operation of nature and, by extension, society.
DETAILED>>In ancient China, this term referred to those who were capable of being an official or even a ruler but who chose to live in seclusion. They had different reasons for this. One might be that they were tired of formalities and red tape and considered such a role as hypocritical, and wished instead for a simple and natural way of life. Another reason was that some were dissatisfied with the corrupt politics of the day, and did not want to get involved, or wished to avoid being persecuted. Yet others chose to withdraw into a hermit-like way of life just because they wanted to give away their posts or positions to those who were more capable and more virtuous. Such people usually had good virtue, but they were not mainstream. It might however be considered being hypocritical to persist in such a way of life for its own sake, and be seen as a dereliction of social responsibility.
DETAILED>>These are written statements appended to each hexagram and each line within hexagrams. "Hexagram texts", which came from divination records, were later compiled and attached individually to each of the 64 hexagrams and each line within the hexagrams. The texts generally fall into two categories: one indicating auspicious or inauspicious events, and the other consisting of narratives. These texts recorded many aspects of social life in ancient China and reflected early understanding ancient people had about god, spirits, and the world.
DETAILED>>The concept of xuantong (玄同) or hidden harmony first appeared in the Daoist classic Laozi. Daoism holds that a ruler should practice non-action, adjusting and assisting to enable the natural ways of the people. A ruler should not dictate the criteria for what is considered right or wrong, nor should the people under his rule be targeted discriminatorily based on such criteria. Likewise, a ruler should be consistent in aiding the people and should not flaunt power or higher status. Under the governing principle of non-action, harmony between the people and between them and the ruler is referred to as “hidden harmony.”
DETAILED>>Highbrow and lowbrow, a dichotomy in literary criticism, refer to two kinds of literary and artistic works, namely, the refined versus the popular, and the lofty versus the vulgar. Highbrow describes works that are elegant and reflect what conforms with mainstream ideology, whereas lowbrow-art forms tend to meet popular aesthetic standard. From the perspective of art creation, highbrow art may be exquisite, but often appears affected, whereas lowbrow art, which has a folk origin, is natural, refreshing, unaffected, and unconstrained. From the Tang Dynasty onward, it became a trend for men of letters to borrow the best from popular art, thus further spurring the growth of lowbrow art, enriching cultural life and leading to more diversified artistic expressions.
DETAILED>>This term refers to poetry that reflects social realities and major events of a historical period, thus possessing historical value. Some of the poems in The Book of Songs were about the realities of its time, which prompted Confucius（551-479 BC） to exclaim that “The Book of Songs enables one to understand society.” This means that he viewed The Book of Songs as using poetry to reflect history. Han dynasty scholars stressed the importance of poetry as a means of recording history. Subsequently, Chinese scholars of poetry believed that poetry should reflect reality through aesthetic means so as to provide aesthetic enjoyment, understanding as well as education. The poems of Tang poet Du Fu（712-770） are called “historical poetry” because they reflected what the country went through during the An Lushan-Shi Siming Rebellion and the author’s acute sense of sadness about the misery the country and its people suffered in times of national crisis.
DETAILED>>In ancient inscriptions on tortoise shells and ox scapula, together with inscriptions on ancient bronze objects, the pictographic Chinese character shi (史) represents a hand holding a writing brush or a hand holding a bamboo slip, referring to a court official in charge of keeping historical records. Explanation of Script and Elucidation of Characters by Xu Shen (58? - 147) in the Eastern Han Dynasty goes： “Shi is the person who keeps records of events. A hand in the middle implies maintaining justice.” Same in sound, two differently-written Chinese characters shi (史 history) and shi (事 events) are from the same origin, and those who keep notes of what happens are called shi (史record keeper) and what they write down is shi (事records). Later, what the officials in charge of keeping records of historical incidents or events or collections of these incidents or events as well as comments about them are also called shi (史), which literally means history. According to Xu Shen, the original pictograph representing the Chinese character shi looks like a hand kept in the middle, which means keeping records of historical incidents or events objectively without lending favor to any side of an issue. Great emphasis was once placed on keeping records of history, and during certain periods, even the sovereign rulers were not allowed to interfere with the work of officials in charge of keeping records of historical incidents or events. On the one hand, by keeping records of historical incidents or events, such officials posed a deterrent to rulers, who had to be careful about what they said and what they did. On the other hand, by keeping records of or commenting on historical figures or events, lessons could be summed up or examples be set up, which rulers could draw on and learn from. This tradition constitutes an important aspect of Chinese people’s humanistic and rationalistic spirit.
DETAILED>>An actual object should be assessed according to the name referring to it. Holding actualities according to its name was an important means for ancient Chinese to govern the state. In actual human relations concerning ethics and morality, every specific role or status had its name, which determined the character or responsibilities of that status. People with certain status had to be assessed on the basis of their status, and it was required that their actual words and actions corresponded to the character and responsibilities determined by the name of their status.
DETAILED>>Governors of the country, especially principal
governors, should never be biased in making decisions on conflicting opinions,
interests, and forces in an unprincipled way, but rather they must
sincerely hold fast to the middle course with appropriate policies and
measures, and
sincerely adhere to a neutral and just position. In other words, they must
uphold principles and stay fair and unselfish. This concept has general significance and will help them govern the country well.
Honor and disgrace are evaluations of and feedback on the conduct of individuals or groups. People are judged on socially accepted values. One is honored if one complies with these values in both words and actions; and one is disgraced if one violates such values. Honor and disgrace also refer to how individuals or groups regard their own conduct morally in terms of honor or disgrace. These moral sentiments originate from people’s identification with values. However, different schools of thought tend to espouse different values.
DETAILED>>This term means to honor teachers and respect rules. The “rules” are the laws of the (physical) universe, as well as the truths and moral principles of the world. Honoring teachers is a traditional Chinese virtue, and respecting rules is an important feature of traditional Chinese culture. A teacher is a vehicle for and a propagator of the rules; hence honoring teachers and respecting rules are two aspects of the same thing. Since ancient times, this has been regarded as an important precondition for the country to prosper and flourish. It is also an important indicator of good government.
DETAILED>>The forefathers of the Han people living in the Central Plains referred to themselves by this term. Earlier on they called themselves Hua (华), Zhuhua (诸华), Xia (夏) or Zhuxia (诸夏). The term Huaxia (华夏) embodies the common identity of the way of life, language, and culture of the people living in the Central Plains, mainly the Han people, and the inheritance of such identity. The Huaxia people evolved into a fairly stable ethnic group in the Qin Dynasty, which established a unified country of many ethnic groups with Huaxia being the principal group. In the Han Dynasty, the term Han became an alternative name of Huaxia. Later, the term Huaxia was extended to refer to China or the Han people.
DETAILED>>The Chinese character for human being (人) has been imbued with Chinese humanistic spirit since it was created. In its ancient form, it resembled a man standing with his body slightly bending forward, his hands on his sides, looking modest and polite. Because humans have the ability to think, they understand that an individual is too weak to survive alone and, therefore, they need to cooperate with each other. Ancient Chinese thinkers believed that human beings were one of the three elements of the universe, the other two being heaven and earth. Humanity was the soul of the world; therefore, human beings were the most distinguished among all things. Many ancient concepts, particularly in the political and ethical spheres, were based on this humanistic spirit.
DETAILED>>The “human heart” here refers to human awareness of outside attractions and desires for such attractions. It is in contrast with consciousness of moral principles, and was used in classics such as the “Old Text” version of The Book of History, and Xunzi. Confucian scholars in the Song Dynasty attached great importance to both concepts, and had interpretations and expositions about them. It was believed that the conscious mind, or heart involved two aspects. The first is the human desires for the outside world that were aroused by sensory organs such as eyes and ears, which is called renxin, or the “human heart.” The second is the consciousness of moral principles, which is called daoxin, or the “moral mind.” “Human desires” is brought about by the bodily senses and it is selfish. Therefore, the role of the consciousness of moral principles needs to be allowed full play so that excessive human desires which will lead to harm can be held in check.
Wei (伪) means artifice, or modification by humans. Wei originally meant “by people,” and by extension it can have different meanings. First, in terms of nature, wei implies modifications and changes made by people to preexisting natural attributes or functions. Such modification exemplifies in daily human relations how humans are regulated by moral codes and rules of propriety. Xunzi (313?-238) felt that such modification of human nature was essential. Second, in terms of truth, wei implies the use of human behavior to mask the truth; this has connotations of falsehood and deception.
DETAILED>>Human nature may be categorized as having three levels. This is a view of human nature held by ancient Chinese people. According to this theory, different people have different inherent natures, which can be divided into upper, middle and lower levels. People of the upper level have a good nature. People of the lower level have an evil nature. The nature of those in the middle level is either devoid of the distinction between good and evil, or is a mixture of good and evil. Some believe that human nature is inborn, particularly in those of the upper and lower levels, and is unchangeable. Others think that education can change human nature, allowing people to advance to the next level.
DETAILED>>Human nature is a mixture of good and evil. This is a view of human nature held by ancient Chinese people. According to this theory, human nature can neither be all good nor all evil, but instead good and evil co-exist within us. Being good or evil is the result of cultivation after one’s birth. Therefore, according to this theory, the key to being a person of virtue lies in learning and education.
This view was proposed by Xunzi（313？-238 BC）. According to him, human nature, which refers to proprieties humans naturally possess, includes physical life as well as various desires and perceptions. If people are allowed to only follow desire for external things, which is something inherent in human nature, it will lead to conflicts, and the society will fall into chaos. Moral conduct which is vital for maintaining order in society does not derive from human nature. Rather, it is acquired through deliberate efforts.
DETAILED>>This view on human nature was first proposed by Mencius. As Mencius（372？-289 BC） saw it, human nature is the inherent moral character which a human being naturally possesses and which distinguishes him from an animal. In this sense, human nature underpins such virtues as benevolence, righteousness, sound social norms, and good judgment. However, good human nature does not automatically constitute virtuous conduct. People need to continuously cultivate good human nature in order to develop virtuous conduct.
DETAILED>>Human nature has nothing to do with good or evil, which is a view held by ancient Chinese people. The philosopher Gaozi in the Warring States Period was one of the advocates of this “neither good nor evil” theory. Here, human nature refers to the in-born attributes of a human being. According to Gaozi, a person’s inherent desires directed to the outside world reflects no more than physical needs, such as the need for food and for sex. Such instincts are irrelevant to ethics, free of good or evil. A person’s good or evil traits result from cultivation and social influence in life after birth. People who are exposed to good influences tend to do good things. People who live in a bad environment tend to do bad things.
DETAILED>>This refers to the order or hierarchy of human relations and the codes of conduct for people at different levels of the hierarchy. The term, first coined by Mencius (372?-289 BC), is about five human relationships: those between father and son, between monarch and minister, between husband and wife, between siblings, and between friends. It is also known as the five bonds. Such human relations were considered the basic framework of social order, with precedence of senior over junior, of close relatives over distant ones, and between different social ranks all clearly set. Different codes of conduct were to be followed for different human relations.
DETAILED>>People’s physical constitution, emotions and ethics should closely correspond with the structure and order of Nature. The theory that “Humanity should be aligned with Nature” was put forward by Dong Zhongshu(179-104BC). He believed that all things between heaven and earth and their operation had their own intrinsic structure and order. A person’s body, feelings, thinking, acts, and ethics are all in correspondence with the structure and order of Nature, particularly in numbers. According to this theory, humans are but a duplicate of Nature. Dong’s idea provided the basis for mutual interaction between people and Nature.
DETAILED>>A hypocrite is one who uses deceptive ways to seek a good local reputation. Hypocrites appear to behave in accordance with moral principles so as to win popular praise, while in reality compromising principles and personal integrity, currying favor, and colluding with dishonorable people. Hypocrites appear to be virtuous superior persons, but in reality are not. Their conduct often causes confusion in moral judgment, posing a tremendous threat to social morality.
DETAILED>>This concept, used by Huang Zunxian (1848-1905) of the late Qing Dynasty to promote reform in poetry, advocates that one should write what one sees and thinks, unrestricted by the old writing style or traditional moral values. Such writings are more natural and free in expression, and can express all new things and new ideas. This approach to writing had a significant influence on the later vernacular language movement.
DETAILED>>This happens when inner thoughts or a written text’s general idea cannot fully reflect the actual state of things, and when diction cannot fully express inner thoughts. It is a description and analysis of the psychology of writing by Lu Ji (261-303), of the Western Jin Dynasties, in his literary theoretic work, “The Art of Writing.” Specifically, inner thoughts or creative ideas triggered by external things can be diverse yet ambiguous and the author grasps only some of these. Language, too, has difficulty in expressing them fully, not to mention all the implications triggered by or related to external things. In the domain of everyday human cognition and practice, language can, by and large, clearly record the subject’s thoughts and express his wishes with regard to external things. But in literary creation, words often fail to do so. This also explains why literary interpretation enjoys greater latitude than purely academic interpretation. Lu Ji revealed this essential characteristic of literary creation and reception, thus promoting the development of literature under its own standards.
DETAILED>>A genre created by Tao Yuanming (365 or 372 or 376-427) of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, idyllic poetry depicts rural life and scenery. Taking country life as his favored theme, Tao Yuanming used plain language to portray rural scenes. His poems were unpretentious, refreshing, and natural, thus creating a far-reaching aesthetic conception and a lasting charm. Idyllic poetry represented a new stage in classical Chinese poetry and shaped poetic development in the Six Dynasties period and beyond.
DETAILED>>When two people are of the same mind, their combined strength is like a sharp blade which can cut through metal. “Two people” here could mean two brothers, husband and wife, or any two persons working together. “Of the same mind” here means the people sharing the same vision and thinking. This metaphorical term means that people of the same mind will create great strength and can overcome any obstacles. It stresses the importance of concerted efforts and cooperation, which will generate great power.
This term has two meanings. First, it means to manifest rectitude. Second, it refers to upright conduct. The term was originally used to describe qualities expected of the sovereign. De (德) specifically meant fairness and decency towards the populace, in the appointment of officials, and the bestowing of rewards and punishments. Mingde (明德) as a verb was to govern in such a way. Later, the term as a noun referred to the required moral qualities of those in power. Confucianism holds that governing in a moral way is an extension of a person’s internal rectitude, hence mingde is an expression of the highest degree of morality manifested by a ruler.
DETAILED>>This concept refers specifically to the way of teaching and the use of Buddha statues and various symbols and virtual images to disseminate Buddhist beliefs. As such, image-based teaching is sometimes used to refer to Buddhism. There is a long history of image-based teaching in ancient China. The ancient Chinese believed that the way of governing all things under heaven and the mysteries of the human heart, namely,knowledge, reason, thought, emotion, and will, are all represented and conveyed through the images of all things under heaven and the images envisaged by humans. In The Book of Changes, trigrams are used to describe all things under heaven and their changes and interconnections. Therefore, images in The Book of Changes are the origin of all other images in traditional Chinese culture, and they are also the general name of all cultural symbols in China. Exploring the mystery of images and giving full play to them became the basic approach of Confucianism to understanding the way of all things under heaven and to educating people. After the Wei and Jin dynasties, the images in The Book of Changes and those used in Buddhist teaching merged, giving rise to the concept of image-based instruction, which profoundly influenced ancient Chinese literary criticism and writing. The Chinese literati attached great importance to using images, symbols and literary images to represent certain cultural allegorical and edifying functions. However, with the development of language and cultural symbols, the images in The Book of Changes phased out of people’s daily lives, and images began to refer to shapes, symbols and literary images. Image-based teaching has become an issue concerning aesthetics and literary theory. Qing Dynasty scholar Zhang Xuecheng(1738-1801) made a systematic exploration on this concept in his work General Principles of History.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a state of mind in the process of literary and artistic creation. It suggests that the author, fully inspired by emotions, transcends the constraint of time and space, and enters into a state of free imagination or a special mood for literary and artistic creation, before producing a natural and beautiful work of literature or art, either in language or in imagery. This term was popularly used in literary and artistic theories of the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties. Liu Xie （465？-520）of the Southern Dynasties devoted one chapter especially to this term in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. Imaginative contemplation is the unique mental activity in literary and artistic
The imperial academy was the highest educational institution and educational administrative department in feudal China. The term first appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty, but the first imperial academy was not officially established until 124 BC during the reign of Emperor Wu （156-87 BC） of the Han Dynasty. Teachers of the imperial academy were called “grand academicians” (literarily “scholars of broad learning”). They were well versed in Confucian classics, had rich teaching experience, and possessed both moral integrity and professional competence. Their students were called “students of the imperial academy” or “students of the grand academicians.” At its peak the imperial academy had 10,000 students.
The central governments of all subsequent dynasties, including the Ming and Qing, had an imperial academy or a similar institution of education, usually located in the capital. It had different names and systems in different dynasties. The imperial academy, the top institution of learning run by the central government, along with local institutions of education and private schools, formed a complete education system in ancient China. They were significant in disseminating the Confucian classics and ancient China’s mainstream values with Confucianism as its main school of thought.
DETAILED>>Imperial edicts consist of zhao (诏) and ce (策). Zhao were orders made by an emperor while ce were issued by the emperor to confer commendation on officials and appoint and dismiss them. Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties discussed in his literary critique The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons various types of official documents used by the emperor to his ministers and those used by higher-ranking officials to lower-ranking ones. Liu Xie pointed out that these types of official documents were highly authoritative and influential, setting rules for the whole nation to follow. Conferring commendations were like “the moon and shining stars” or “timely rain and dew,” showing the emperor’s loving care for his subjects. Reprimands and punishments, on the other hand, showed his “thunderous rage” or the “chill of autumn frost.” These kinds of official documents should be clear-cut in stand, well thought of, based on laws and rules as well as common sense and facts, and correct in wording and syntax. Such official documents should be solemn in tone and refined and moderate in style.
DETAILED>>Refining rhetorical skills is inseparable from nurturing the body and mind. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, the Southern Dynasties literary critic Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) summed up three main functions of rhetorical skills, pointing out that they are essential to political and educational affairs, to government operation and its efficacy, and to individual’s self-cultivation of body and mind. Be it governance of the world or personal cultivation, rhetorical skills matter. This view dates straight back to Confucius (551-479 BC), who observed that “poorly prepared discourses neither spread far nor last long,”casting little influence on others. Therefore, a man of virtue should not only engage in self-cultivation, keep improving his morality, and accumulate various forms of knowledge, but also attach importance to the effective communication of his thoughts and emotions. In other words, he should take his language use seriously and be eloquent. His thoughts and emotions lay the basis for the cultivation of his character, and excellent rhetorical skills help sublimate his morality. Such self-cultivation is comprehensive and practical. When it comes to writing, one should develop substantial ideas and deliver them gracefully.
DETAILED>>Acknowledging the imperfections in those we cherish, and recognizing the merits in those we despise – this profound principle, taken from The Book of Rites, provides a timeless method for evaluating character. It resists sweeping acceptance or rejection of individuals based solely on personal preferences. Instead, it advocates for a measured analysis that invites objective evaluation, promoting the discernment of right from wrong while fostering a spirit of broad-minded tolerance. At its very heart, it maintains that moral integrity should be the compass guiding judgment, ensuring that personal inclinations do not outweigh moral principles. This wisdom rings particularly true for those who lead others.
DETAILED>>Warfare should seek a quick victory and should not be prolonged. This was a principle of warfare proposed by Sunzi, the ancient military strategist. It is of particular importance to the party that initiates a war. If the war continues without a decisive outcome, it will result in poor morale, weakened combat ability, an increase in various types of consumption, and difficulty in maintaining supply lines. Ultimately it will be hard to achieve the aims of the war and losses may even exceed gains; complications may also ensue which endanger the country's security. This is a comprehensive concept of war which incorporates political, economic and other factors.
DETAILED>>This term describes the act of painting on a multicolored feather. Metaphorically, it means a love of ostentatious adornment in writing. Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC), by referring to the imaginary act of putting a pictorial pattern on a colored feather, contended that Confucius (551-479 BC) placed too much emphasis on education, thus killing the natural goodness of human beings and impairing the simple yet beautiful state of human society, confounding his original aspiration. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties used this same example to hint at the harmful convention of excessively pursuing formal beauty in writing and other art forms at the price of natural beauty. He adopted the Confucian position of “matching form with substance,” and set forth the principle of unity between rhetoric and meaning, thus forming the classic aesthetic of “balanced harmony.”
DETAILED>>As opposed to youxing (有形 corporeal), wuxing (无形) literally means “incorporeal” or “formless.” The incorporeal cannot be described using such formal measurements as size, length, and weight, thereby they are lacking the formal confines that separate one thing from another. There are several types of incorporeal things. Qi, as one example, cannot be seen but can be felt. The way (dao), as another, can neither be seen nor be felt and therefore cannot be designated by a name. In ancient times, it was generally recognized that the incorporeal serve as the nature of or origin for the generation and changing of the corporeal.
DETAILED>>This saying, with the attitude to fame and fortune at its core, refers to a way in which people in ancient China sought to practice self-cultivation. People should not be greedy for fame and fortune and be burdened by such greed. Instead they ought to cherish noble ideals and work heart and soul to achieve them.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a collection of works by an individual author, in contrast to an anthology which amalgamates the works of many writers. In the Western Han Dynasty, Liu Xin（？-23） composed Seven Categories, one of the categories being “The Catalogue of Shi and Fu,” which collects the literary works of 66 writers including Qu Yuan（340？-278？BC）, Tang Le, and Song Yu. Organized by author, “The Catalogue of Shi and Fu” was regarded as the beginning of individual collections. Many more individual collections were compiled in the Eastern Han Dynasty, as exemplified by the 886 collections of writers from the Han through Wei and Jin to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, recorded in The History of the Sui Dynasty. Nearly every author had his own collection. Collections devoted to poetry were usually entitled collection of poems while those concerned with prose or both poetry and prose were entitled collection of writings. An individual collection might be entitled after the author’s name, pen name, posthumous title, birth place, or residence. Containing all the major works of an author, an individual collection enables readers to learn about the author’s aspirations and therefore provides a valuable source for the study of his ideas and literary achievements for later generations.
DETAILED>>This phrase, from The Analects, stands for extrapolating many things from one. It describes a state of learning that Confucius (551-479 BC) hoped his students would reach. The concept entails understanding the underlying principles of a single matter and using that knowledge to discern other matters that follow the same principles. Confucius used the metaphor of “one corner” and “three corners” to exemplify this process of knowledge extension, widely known as “drawing inferences by analogy.”
DETAILED>>This refers to the effect a ruler’s virtuous behavior has on his subjects, in the way the wind influences the myriad things. Moral cultivation is an important part of education. The Confucian view is that a ruler should set an example to the people, influencing them unobtrusively. If he is moral and ethical in conduct, the people will follow his example and abide by the rites and moral standards willingly without being under duress. The term also refers to the prevailing social mores in a country shaped by a ruler's influence.
Laozi advocated “influencing others without preaching” as part of his philosophy of wuwei (无为) or non-action. In ancient times, rulers issued orders and instructions to shape their subjects’ speech, thoughts and behavior so as to conform to the proprieties. Laozi was against this kind of direct action, believing that instead of imposing their own will on the people, the sovereign should employ non-action and non-preaching methods to preserve and protect the natural state of their subjects. Later, the term came to mean influencing and guiding others by one’s moral conduct.
DETAILED>>Yin (因), which means “follow” or “inherit,” embodies a distinct attitude and approach towards things. When people yin something, they adhere to its inherent forms or rules of existence and operation, refraining from imposing their own demands or external standards. This treatment acknowledges the innate reasonableness within the object or its evolution, justifying the significance of preserving and inheriting such reasonableness.
DETAILED>>This term highlights the relationship between inheritance and innovation. Yin (因) implies inheritance or adoption, whereas ge (革) means reform or innovation. The whole notion can be traced back to Confucius (551-479 BC). In his view, the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties had all modified their respective codes of etiquette in accordance with their own circumstances and on the basis of a previous era’s established rules. “Modified” here implies the idea of innovation grounded in inheritance. Yang Xiong (53 BC-AD 18) of the Han Dynasty expounded this idea more systematically. This concept was later used by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties in literary criticism, giving rise to the notion of “continuity and change.” All these ideas reflect a unity of opposites, stressing constant change in history and tradition, favoring innovation grounded in past experience and achievements, as well as avoiding either unquestioning adherence to convention or blind pursuit of novelty. Besides literary and artistic creation, the concept above is also applicable to academic research and even the governance of a country.
This refers to a style of painting in which ink shades are manipulated through dilution, and color use is minimal. It is also known as traditional Chinese or typically Chinese painting. The materials used include ink and water, a painting brush, and rice paper. Through adjusting the proportion of water to ink, the final image varies between light and dark, wet and dry, and thick and thin ink, thus producing varying degrees of color intensity. An ink wash painting normally consists of only ink and water, or of black and white. A more refined ink wash painting, on the other hand, may also feature an elaborate style of painting with flowers and birds in splendid hues, also known as "colored ink wash painting." On the whole, Chinese ink wash painting is impressionistic when depicting distant objects, but realistic about nearby ones. Through the skillful manipulation of color contrasts and the production of artistic ambience, the painter brings forth the value of a painting's "spiritual liveliness."
This concept is said to have been coined by Xunzi (313?-238 BC). Innate emotions refer to the innate desires and emotions that humans possess, including love, hate, delight, anger, sadness, and joy. Xunzi believed that people naturally develop these desires and emotions while interacting with external objects, and they are not created by humans after birth. People should exercise necessary control and regulation of these desires and emotions, on the one hand, to allow for appropriate expression, and on the other hand, to avoid excessive indulgence.
DETAILED>>Inner beauty means a fine disposition and moral character. It first appeared in “Lisao” by Qu Yuan(340?-278?BC), referring to an inherited innate moral character which was further fostered in one’s early living environment. On this basis acquired competence develops, which is achieved when one, after gaining initial understanding of the principles of things, consciously improves his moral character through self-cultivation, and strengthens one’s abilities. Later this term is used to emphasize that an author should possess an inner fine disposition and moral character, and that noble and great literature can only derive from a noble and great character.
DETAILED>>Such inscriptions include oracles and events recorded on bones or tortoise shells of the Shang and Zhou dynasties. They are also known as “script chiseled out with a knife,” “oracles on bones or tortoise shells,” or “script from Yin ruins.” They are the earliest known characters of ancient China dated more than 3,000 years ago. Inscriptions on bones or tortoise shells were first uncovered from among Yin ruins at Xiaotun Village in Anyang in Henan Province, generally believed to have first been discovered in 1899 by Wang Yirong (1845-1900), a late Qing epigrapher. In the Shang and Zhou dynasties, royal families and noblemen would consult heaven about anything ranging from state business to trivial affairs in daily life, such as sacrificial rituals, weather, harvesting, war, hunting, illness, and giving birth. It was the answers they thus elicited that determined what course of action to take. Divination was an important part of a country’s governance; the bones and tortoise shells with characters inscribed on them would be stored away as state archives. So far, more than 100,000 bones and tortoise shells have been unearthed, about 4,500 characters have been tallied, and of these, about 1,700 have been understood and interpreted. Characters on bones and tortoise shells have become increasingly systemized, with the six ways of forming Chinese characters (namely, pictographs, self-explanatory characters, associative compounds, pictophonetic characters, mutually explanatory characters, and phonetic loan characters) all reflected in them and a large number of pictophonetic characters (or phonograms) that had merged. Oracles inscribed on bones and tortoise shells are also valuable firsthand material for studying the history of the Shang and Zhou dynasties.
DETAILED>>Insect script was a special style of calligraphy current in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, also known as “bird-and-insect script” and “bird-and-insect seal script.” It was a variation of seal script. Characters written in this style resembled birds and insects in nature, hence the name. Insect script was cast or inscribed on weaponry, bells and cauldrons. For example, the 8-character inscription on the sword of Goujian, the king of the State of Yue, unearthed near Yichang in Hubei Province, adopted this very style. There were eight styles of calligraphy in use during the Qin Dynasty, among which insect script was in the fourth place. After he usurped the throne, Wang Mang (45 BC-AD23) ordered that insect script be recognized as one of the six official scripts and be used for writing on flags, tallies or seals.
DETAILED>>Mountains and rivers often inspire the literati in their literary conception. They use such landscapes in contrast to the imperial court. Thus, mountains and rivers symbolize a reclusive way of life. When ancient men of letters were unappreciated by the bureaucracy or when they wanted to escape from mundane duties and the crass pursuit of position and wealth, they might find their own meaning among mountains and rivers. They were not only the objects of poetic and prosaic description, but also where men of letters sought spiritual consolation. Mountain-and-river poetry first emerged between the Jin Dynasty and Song of the Southern Dynasties. Mountains and rivers became independent objects of artistic appreciation. Inspiration thus drawn adds to the aesthetic diversity of literary expression. The sight of mountains and rivers not only aids actual description of natural scenery in literary works, but also helps to chasten and elevate men of letters’ spiritual world, expand their horizons and broaden their minds. Such aesthetic activities raise them to greater heights in literary experience and expression.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the meaning implicit in an inspiration, or meaning and charm generated when poetic emotion encounters an external object or scene. It is an artistic image an author creates when appreciating the beauty and charm intrinsic in an object or scene. According to this term, an author should incorporate his sentiments and thoughts into the object or scene depicted to convey them through artistic images and aesthetic appreciation. This will spark the reader’s imagination and thus enable him to gain a deeper appreciation of a poem.
DETAILED>>This concept means a painter should be good at association in thinking in artistic conception and creation. He should give full rein to his imagination and connect and reconstruct a variety of source images and materials so as to create a great painting in both image and spirit. “Association in thinking” stresses imagination, selection, connection and conception. While the subject matter and source materials come from reality, the painting is by no means a replica of it. “Association in thinking” makes it possible for a painter to reconstruct his thoughts and emotions in the image of his work. “Inspirational creation” stresses the aesthetic effects of a good painting that derives from “association in thinking.” A good painting should not only create a good image, but also enable the viewer to appreciate the underlying message. Such a painting is one of inspirational creation. “Association in thinking” and “inspirational creation” together constitute an inseparable process of artistic creation. This concept is the earliest definition of artistic conception and aesthetic appreciation in China; it later became an important principle underlying the theory on Chinese painting.
DETAILED>>One should not instruct a student until he is anxious to learn; one should not give guidance to a student until he wants to express himself but does not know how. This term is an underlying principle of Confucius’ （551-479 BC） philosophy on education. It stresses the importance of keeping students motivated. The principle of
guidance of teaching in contemporary educational theory originates from this concept.
The term refers to a state of existence which is hard to see and ascertain. It is used in Laozi to describe the existential characteristics of Dao. According to Laozi, Dao is shapeless, nebulous, and beyond characterization by anything physical or material. At the same time, it is not completely void, but influences everything in the universe. This intangible nature is typical of Dao.
DETAILED>>Zhi (智), originally written as zhi (知 a different Chinese character representing knowing), means intelligence. It suggests clear cognition and good judgment of right and wrong, advantage and disadvantage. Intelligence shows both one’s awareness of other people and events as well as one’s ability to conduct introspection. Confucianism believes that people should have intelligence so as not to be confused by complexities of life and be able to act in conformity with ethical and ritual standards. However, excessive use of intelligence may lead to deception and fraud. Therefore, Daoists tend to view intelligence with suspicion and disapproval.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the creative process through which a writer interacts with subject matter and gives free rein to his imagination. During the process, he projects onto real objects his mental sensations and imaginings, and endows them with an aesthetic tone. Conversely, his imaginary sensations and imaginings are given concrete expression by real objects. The free interaction between mind and subject matter, transcending the limitations of space and time, creates a superb artistic work depicted in language. The term originated in the words of “taking advantage of the circumstances to let your mind wander freely” in Zhuangzi. Later, this idea was systematically developed by Liu Xie（465？—520） in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons during the Southern Dynasties to describe imaginative contemplation. The term stresses the importance of interaction between the mind and the poetic subject matter as well as free imagination in the process of artistic creation. It demonstrates the process of thinking in artistic creation and succinctly summarizes the underlying features of aesthetic appreciation and freedom in artistic creation.
DETAILED>>Gain means all factors conducive to the survival and development of individuals and groups. The ancients often contrasted gain with righteousness. There is private and public gain. The former is related to individuals, their families or special groups, and consists of such things as goods, money, reputation, power and status. When personal interests clash with the interests of others, people tend to achieve gains for themselves at the expense of other people’s interests. Public gain is shared by everyone in society and mainly means a large population, abundant property, good public order and high moral standards. Proceeding from different perspectives and viewpoints, ancient China’s schools of thought had conspicuous differences in their interests and attitudes in regard to gain.
This term describes an appropriate approach to reading literary works by understanding the work from one’s own perspective. It was put forth by Mencius (372? -289 BC), a thinker in the Warring States Period, when he talked about how to correctly understand The Book of Songs. Since then, this concept, extended to become hermeneutic, has been applied broadly to poetry and all other literary works. This point of view emphasizes that readers should activate their own personal experiences and reflective thinking when reading literary works so as to grasp or infer the sentiments that authors try to convey through their work, thus becoming able to understand its content and main themes. This viewpoint has evolved into a theory for artistic appreciation in ancient Chinese literary criticism.
DETAILED>>“Richness dwells in vintage simplicity and nuanced profundity in serene composure.” This is how Northern Song writer Su Shi (1037-1101) praised the poetic style of Wei Yingwu (737?-791) and Liu Zongyuan (773-819). Such insistence on the supremacy of simplicity and composure reflects Su Shi's view about poetry and is an important aesthetic conception of ancient China. “Great music is soundless, and great image is hard to trace,” Laozi wrote in his Dao De Jing. This shows Laozi's high esteem for simple and natural beauty, which is the source of Su Shi's aesthetic view.
DETAILED>>This term, neixing (内省), means introspection, or self-examination. Introspection was a form of moral cultivation advocated by the Confucians. They felt that while moral cultivation certainly required words and deeds to adhere externally to moral standards, it was fundamentally dependent on the internal formation of moral awareness. Hence, while they were concerned with people’s words and deeds, they placed even more emphasis on cultivation of the inner self. They favored constant examination of one’s true intentions, as well as the formation and observance of internal moral awareness.
DETAILED>>This term refers to self-examination of one’s own words, deeds, and inner thoughts. Introspection is a way of moral cultivation put forward by Mencius（372？—289 BC）. Mencius inherited the Confucian belief that one’s moral integrity and meritorious deeds are determined by his own ethical cultivation. If his words or deeds fail to gain endorsement or appreciation from others, one should not blame them. On the contrary, one should examine himself to find out if his words and deeds as well as inner thoughts conform to standards of ethics and propriety.
DETAILED>>This is the proposition from a famous military theorist and politician in ancient times named Wu Qi (440?-381BC). Literally, the term is capable of yielding two interpretations. First, it emphasizes the importance of “retaining the victory” or “holding on to the result,” with the implication that it is relatively easy to win a war but more difficult to keep the advantage of a victory. Secondly, the saying highlights the importance of taking control in a war. A charging army has the initiative and therefore is relatively easy for them to win, whereas the defenders are in a passive position. They can only win by turning their passive position into an active one, and for that reason, they have relatively greater difficulty. Furthermore, there are two deeper implications embedded. First, never launch a war in a careless manner because wars, especially when launched frequently, are disastrous to a warring nation and its people. Secondly, in order to keep the victory in the long run, a nation should focus on more essential priorities such as “rites and righteousness.” Based on this expression, later generations have come up with such modified sayings as “it is easy to launch a business but difficult to stay in business,” in order to warn people not to be so content with what they have achieved that they become idle and indulgent in their comfort. Instead they should stay true to their original aspiration, aim high, be perseverant, and keep striving.
DETAILED>>This alludes to the long time it takes for a tree to grow, yet even longer time it takes to nurture talents. The implications are twofold: first, identifying and bring up talents has long-term significance for the development of a country and a society; second, nurturing talents should be an undertaking pursued with strategic vision, sustained efforts and according to a comprehensive plan .
DETAILED>>In a broad sense, the term means a style of traditional opera popular in the Jin Dynasty. In a narrow sense, it refers to the scores and librettos used in this type of drama, which was performed mainly in hangyuan (行院), or brothels, hence the name. This genre was very popular in the early Jin Dynasty but no separate, complete works have come down to us today. The format is as follows: short acts, simple plots, humorous language and comic gestures. The main performer fujing (副净) provides the humor while the supporting performer fumo (副末) provides comic backup. The form inherited a great deal from the Tang Dynasty two-person comic banter of canjunxi (参军戏) , and Song-dynasty zaju comedy. The brothel scores had a great influence on the development of the later Yuan zaju or opera.
DETAILED>>This concept was proposed by Wang Gen (1483-1541), a student of Wang Yangming (1472-1529) and founder of the Taizhou School of the Mind, and is derived from Wang Yangming’s idea of “joy being original of man’s heart.” For Wang Gen, all humans are born joyful. The reason why many are not happy is that their true and innate joy is blinded by their selfish desires. To break away from this constraint, they must use their inner conscience to detect their selfish desires. By the innate knowledge of good, these selfish desires can be eliminated, thus allowing the return of true and innate joy and the acquisition of a joyful disposition. In fact, the concept that “joy is original of man’s heart and mind” is a combination of “the innate knowledge of good” and “the joyous essence of the heart” and is thus a development of Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind.
DETAILED>>The quatrain is one of the important styles of ancient Chinese poetry. According to the number of characters, they can be divided into quatrains with five-character lines and quatrains with seven-character lines. A quatrain with four five-character lines has 20 characters, while a quatrain with four seven-character lines contains 28 characters. In terms of rules and forms, those that conform to the rules and forms are called “rules-based quatrains” while those that do not are termed “ancient quatrains.” The five-character quatrain originated from the yuefu poetry and folk songs of the Han Dynasty, while those with seven-character lines originated from the ballads of the Wei and Jin dynasties. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the vigorous growth of yuefu folk songs encouraged the literati to write large numbers of five-character poetry imitating the yuefu style, which promoted the development of these quatrains. In addition, the quatrains with five- and seven-character lines created in the Northern and Southern Dynasties began to stress tonal and rhythmic patterns. By the Tang Dynasty, rules-based poetry gradually became well-defined, and ancient quatrains and rules-based quatrains with five- and seven-character lines became the mainstream poetic styles, and a large number of famous poets and masterpieces emerged. As the quatrains are short and almost end the moment they begin, extra attention is required for their layout. Poets not only place emphasis on the completeness of the meaning, on freshness and naturalness, but also on the underlying nuances of words and rhymes.
DETAILED>>A ruler must generate wealth in accordance with justice and rules, and then use such wealth to help people prosper. Yi (义), originally refers to righteousness and can also be understood as appropriateness and rules. Shengli (生利) means to generate wealth and make profits. Fengmin (丰民) suggests enriching the people. This is to say that the ruler must ensure that what he does conforms to justice and rules, benefits the people, and improves their livelihood. It is a combination of the concepts of “justice bringing wealth” and “keeping wealth with the people.”
This term generally indicates any behavior of beings that may bring about a subsequent effect. Such behavior is subdivided into three kinds: corporal, verbal, and mental. The subdivision corresponds with the behaviors of the body, of speech, and of thought. They can all produce results: good, bad, or something in between. Therefore, concerning their value, one can distinguish wholesome action, evil action, and also those which cannot bring about the wholesome or the unwholesome. In the idea of the reincarnation in Buddhism, behavior in a previous life determines the form of existence in a later world. Because of this, no matter whether one has deliverance as one’s goal or not, in order to obtain a result hoped, it is extremely important to control one’s three actions: corporal, verbal, and mental.
DETAILED>>This term means not to publicize one’s strong points but make up for one’s weak points. Tao (韬) means a sword sheath or an arrow box. Guang (光) means light, indicating one’s capability and talent. Taoguang (韬光) means not to advertise one’s strong points, and never boast about or show off one’s talent or skills. Yang (养) means cultivation while hui (晦) means dimness, indicating weakness or disadvantage. Yanghui (养晦) means to strengthen one’s cultivation and offset one’s weaknesses. This term shows that the Chinese people uphold modesty, restraint, self-cultivation, and self-enhancement.
DETAILED>>The need to keep earthly affairs from heavenly affairs separate was first mentioned in The Book of History and the Discourses on Governance of the States. This was aimed at countering disorderly interaction between the people and the god and redefining the relationship between them. The ancient Chinese viewed sacrifices to the god and spirits as belonging to the heavenly realm while governance of the people was an earthly matter. Heavenly and earthly affairs ought to be managed separately by designated people so as to avoid communication with the god in an arbitrary and disorderly manner. This would maintain the authority of the gods and the order of the human world under the gods.
DETAILED>>This term, from The Book of Rites, means attaching great value to good faith and seeking harmonious relations, which was a key features of the society of “universal harmony” envisioned by Confucian scholars from the Warring States Period through the Qin and Han dynasties. They believed that in an ideal society, the land should belong to all its people, and there should be mutual trust, cooperation and harmonious relations between people and between states. “Keeping good faith and pursuing harmony” subsequently became an ethical norm advocated by Confucian scholars; it later also became an important Chinese cultural norm governing relations between people and between states.
DETAILED>>The concept of keeping wealth with the people has long been a part of Chinese political economy. Prior to the Qin Dynasty, the Confucian, Mohist, Daoist, and Legalist scholars as well as military strategists all expounded on this subject. A ruler is expected to be frugal and will not compete with the people for benefits, nor plunder their riches. Policies that are generous towards the people should be adopted, so as to permit and encourage them to become rich through justified means. The underlying assumption here is that a wealthy populace and a wealthy state are one and the same. A wealthy populace is the foundation of a state’s wealth as well as the fundamental guarantee for the state to win popular support. A state’s wealth is more than just about its riches, but about people’s support as well. This is an extension of the concept of “putting the people first,” and in the present day, keeping wealth with the people has become a defining feature of modern civilization.
DETAILED>>Kindness is a virtue espoused by ancient Chinese. While emphasizing the importance of filial piety, the Confucian school also encouraged parental care and love for their children, which was referred to as kindness. Cultivation of one's kindness would enable a ruler to treat his people as his own children when exercising governance. In Daoism, kindness often referred to a ruler's love for his people.
DETAILED>>King was originally the title for the “Son of Heaven,” namely, the country’s supreme ruler in the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties. From the Spring and Autumn Period onward, the power of the Zhou court gradually weakened and the kingdom disintegrated. By the time of the Warring States Period, any monarch could call himself a king. Up to the Qin and Han dynasties, king became the highest title granted by the emperor to a male member of the imperial family. In the political philosophical discourse of Confucianism, especially in the works of Confucius（551-479 BC） and Mencius（372？-289 BC）, a king represents heaven’s will and therefore ought to have supreme, unchallengeable power; at the same time, he is imbued with a high moral attribute and political ideals. According to Confucianism, to be a king is to unify or govern the country with benevolence and righteousness, or to win over people by morally justified means. Likewise, the pursuit of the kingly way means using benevolent and righteous means to unify and govern the country.
DETAILED>>The term means to have knowledge and understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses. This is the basis for knowing others and all other things. Further self-improvement and progress stem from this. Exceptional and wise people often demonstrate this quality. The focus is on developing a conscious sense of self, which echoes the ancient Greek axiom “know thyself.”
DETAILED>>Knowing others means to know their ability, integrity, will, and other qualities. It is a prerequisite for the rational construction of various interpersonal relationships. Especially in the political sphere, those who govern need to know people to give them appropriate duties. However, ancient Chinese also realized that people often lacked true knowledge of others due to their own and external factors. Besides, people’s words and actions could sometimes obscure their true situation. Therefore, understanding a person’s actual situation requires a high degree of wisdom.
DETAILED>>This concept was coined by Mencius (372?-289BC), who advocated that one should make friends with a wide range of outstanding people. In addition to befriending contemporaries, one could also get acquainted with the ancients, reading the canonical texts left behind by them in order to understand their doctrines, ideas and views. In addition, he considered it necessary to “know others and discuss the circumstances they are in,” and on this basis to examine what kinds of people they were, so as to understand their theories and how they were influenced by the circumstances they lived in.
DETAILED>>A thorough knowledge of both oneself and the enemy will avoid peril even in a hundred battles. This principle of warfare was proposed by the ancient military thinker Sun Wu. He advised that the commanding officer must first investigate and scout out the adversary thoroughly so as to know the strengths and weaknesses of both sides. This will give him foresight in battle and prevent reckless actions. Such knowledge is key to correct leadership, maintaining the initiative, and overcoming the adversary. This general principle applies to all other kinds of conflicts, too.
DETAILED>>“Knowledge” refers to awareness and examination of the principles underlying human relations in everyday life, and “application” refers to the implementation of these principles in everyday life. “Knowledge and application,” used in ancient China, were not in the general sense of having knowledge of external objects, or taking action to utilize and transform external things. Rather, they were recognition and application of principles underlying human relations in everyday life. One acquires “knowledge” in different ways: through visual perception, hearing, or mental reflection and insight. Some people think that “knowledge” is difficult and that “application” is easy. Some think that “knowledge” is easy and that “application” is difficult. Some think that “knowledge” and “application” are equally difficult. As for the relationship between “knowledge” and “application”, some maintain that knowledge and application are united as one. Others think that knowledge and application are separate. These varied understanding of “knowledge and application” determine different ways of fostering virtue and of instruction concerning human relations.
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Knowledge from explanation is a type of knowledge and a way of acquiring it proposed by the Mohist School. In their opinion, knowledge is gained in three ways: by personal experience, by hearsay, and by explanation. To learn by explanation means making use of one’s own knowledge and information to reach conclusions and gain understanding.
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Knowledge from hearsay is a type of knowledge and a way of acquiring it proposed by the Mohist School. In their opinion, knowledge is gained in three ways: by personal experience, by hearsay, and by explanation. To learn by hearsay means being told or taught by others, and is an indirect way of gaining knowledge.
The term refers to knowledge derived from the functioning of the mind, which, in contrast to “knowledge from one’s senses,” transcends knowledge obtained through the sensory organs. Zhang Zai (1020-1077) was the first to differentiate between “knowledge from one’s senses” and “knowledge from one’s moral nature.” Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty felt that people gained knowledge about the world in which they lived in two ways. Knowledge obtained from seeing and hearing was “knowledge from one’s senses,” whereas knowledge obtained through moral cultivation of the mind was “knowledge from one’s moral nature.” “Knowledge from one’s moral nature” was not reliant on the sensory organs； it transcended “knowledge from one’s senses” and was fundamental knowledge about the world in which one lived.
DETAILED>>The term refers to knowledge derived from contact between externalities and one’s sensory organs such as the ears and eyes, in contrast to “knowledge from one’s moral nature.” Zhang Zai （1020-1077）was the first to differentiate between “knowledge from one’s senses” and “knowledge from one’s moral nature.” Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty felt that people acquired knowledge about the world in which they lived in two ways. Knowledge obtained from seeing and hearing was “knowledge from the senses,” which was an essential part of human knowledge. However, it was not a complete picture, nor could it provide an understanding of the original source or ontological existence of the world.
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Knowledge from personal experience is a type of knowledge and a way of acquiring it proposed by the Mohist School. In their opinion, knowledge is gained in three ways: by personal experience, by hearsay, and by explanation. To learn from personal experience means learning by examining or getting involved with things. It is a direct way of gaining knowledge.
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Lackluster writing or speech never travels far. What Confucius (551-479 BC) meant when he said this is that, in foreign relations, a diplomat should be eloquent and persuasive to achieve goals and become meritorious. Likewise, if an idea is to spread far or be remembered for long, it must be put to paper by rules of writing and with beautiful wording. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520 or 532？) of the Southern Dynasties cited these words of Confucius to uphold the importance of diction and to stress the importance of an essay’s layout and technique. This term highlights the instrumental role of writing in explaining and being useful to the world, thus raising the status of literary criticism in the history of thought and culture.
DETAILED>>In his essay “The Peach Blossom Spring,” Tao Yuanming
Landscape poetry, as the name suggests, describes the beauty and charm of natural scenery, and landscape poets express their emotions through extolling the enchanting scenery. Landscape poetry is characterized by vivid description of sights with rich and refreshing language. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, scholars who had fled war-torn homes in the north sought solace and escape in nature in the south, and this found expression in poetic description of mountain and river scenes. Xie Lingyun (385-433), a great poet of the late
Yan (言) means language, or words. Language is the basic vehicle through which people express thoughts and wishes, and with which they conduct exchanges. There are still debates regarding whether or not language can accurately and completely express thinking. For various reasons, language may be used by people – deliberately or not – to obfuscate or erroneously express ideas. Moreover, yan at times specifically referred to a means by which those in government instructed the populace. Confucians stressed the role of “conveying through words,” while Daoists favored “wordless instruction.”
DETAILED>>This term means that prose and poetry may contain latent sentiments and thoughts, as well as expressions and sentences that present an apparent sense of beauty. “Latent sentiment and evident beauty” first appeared as the title of a chapter in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. There, “latent sentiment” means what lies beyond events and landscapes in a narrative or a description, triggering imaginations on the part of the reader. On the other hand, “evident beauty” refers to the kind of beauty created by expressions and sentences in a piece of writing, which bring out that latent meaning. The latent and the apparent qualities are inseparable, constituting an aesthetic feature of good literary works. Later, this term developed into a rhetorical device in writing prose and poetry.
DETAILED>>Law being a means of loving the people suggests that laws and institutions are for the benefit of the people. It is an important guiding principle of the Legalist school. The profound significance of this is: Changing laws and institutions or establishing new ones must have “loving the people” as its basis and aim. The Legalists are known for advocating harsh laws and severe punishments, in contrast to Confucian “rule by virtue,” but at a deeper level they are not so much at odds with such concepts as “the people being the foundation” and “benevolence.”
Law is enacted to stop violence and evil and to encourage good behavior. This means law enforcement and moral education should go hand in hand.The purpose of the law is to punish evil and exalt goodness, which is morally significant. Execution of the law has an exemplary and guiding role, which means it has educational value. This view of law holds universal significance.
The Chinese character fa (法), originally meaning “penalty,” refers to the legal system consisting of laws, decrees, and regulations. In ancient China, both fa and li (礼rite) set standards for individual behavior. In particular, rites rewarded virtue, while laws punished vice. It was generally accepted that while only a sovereign ruler had the right to enact and promulgate laws, everyone, be it a ruler or a subject, had to obey the laws. This point of view reflects the justice and fairness of law. In 536 BC, Zichan (?-522 BC), the chief minister in the State of Zheng, had the legal provisions cast on a bronze ding, a tripodal vessel that symbolized the power of the ducal ruler. Zichan’s action, known as “casting the penal code,” was the very first example of publishing a statute in Chinese history. The Warring States Period witnessed the rise of the Legalists such as Shang Yang (390?-338 BC) and Hanfeizi (280?-233 BC).
Fa (法) is also a Buddhist term. In scriptures, it is the Chinese equivalent of the Sanskrit word dharma with three shades of meaning. First, it refers to real being, which is the object of genuine knowledge. Buddhism argues that all things in daily life are produced through the concomitance of causes and conditions. In this sense, what one appears to see or know is unreal in nature. However, one can perceive the dharmas, the indivisible real elements beneath the surface, through mental practices. Indeed, there are more than a hundred types of the elements, such as substance and consciousness. Second, dharma can be defined as the Buddhist teachings. The teachings here not only refer to the words dictated by the Buddha but also what dharma-hearers receive and pursue. This point of view is different from the characteristics of dharma discussed in the Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Advanced Dharma). But they do not contradict each other, because both of them advocate that perception of reality be based on relevant teachings. For Buddhism as a whole, the teachings constitute a significant portion of its knowledge system; for all Buddhists, the teachings pave the way for their personal liberation. Third, dharma denotes the worldly phenomenon, which is clearly distinguishable from the previous meaning. In scriptures, zhufa (all dharmas) and wanfa (tens of thousands of dharmas) represent all worldly phenomena, unreal in nature, in the broadest sense.
DETAILED>>In the context of this term, “laws” refers to the administrative edicts of a ruler as well as institutions and laws. “Times” refers primarily to the prevailing social conditions. “Rites” mainly refer to a society’s moral norms and codes of conduct. In addition to social conventions and mores, “customs” also include popular sentiment. This expression means since everything is constantly changing and evolving, institutions, laws and rites must change correspondingly. It opposes being bound by tradition, favors innovation and change, and espouses the basic principle that a country’s governance should follow the times and respond to popular will. This is an example of the concept of “going with the times” contained in The Book of Changes, and it also resonates with the concept of “putting the people first” advocated by Confucianism.
DETAILED>>The law is born of what is most appropriate. This was the viewpoint of Liu An (179-122 BC), King of Huainan in the Western Han Dynasty. His belief rests on the principle that laws are intentionally crafted by people, acting as a compass for guiding their conduct. The foundation on which laws are built, or their intrinsic rationale, springs from a collective moral consensus – a social agreement on what is deemed fitting and fair. Liu An’s philosophy embeds a profound reflection on legal justice – a strand that parallels the Western narratives on justice that took root in ancient Greece and Rome and evolved through to the modern age.
DETAILED>>To Confucianism, learning is the way to cultivate oneself to achieve moral integrity. The usual meaning of the term is to acquire knowledge and understanding, but for Confucianism it focuses more on the cultivation of moral and ethical qualities to achieve personal growth. Through learning classics and rites, and following the practices of sages, a person is able to cultivate and improve his moral standards and thus become a person of ideal qualities. Daoists, on the other hand, are against learning, and Laozi said that “fine-sounding arguments” only cause unnecessary worries, and can disrupt a person’s natural state of mind.
DETAILED>>The expression means to learn widely from others so as to enrich one’s own artistic creation. Zhuanyi (转益) means to learn and absorb everything that can further one’s creativity; duoshi (多师) means to learn from many teachers. This comes from “Six Playful Quatrains” by Du Fu (712-770) of the Tang Dynasty. There are two related meanings in this term: 1) learn from the experience and skills of all masters, past and present; and 2) while learning and carrying on the best, also be discerning, so as to approach or conform to the traditions of meaning and form as expressed in The Book of Songs, and then develop one’s own poetic style. The expression later came to include not just poetry but also literature and art.
DETAILED>>By finding tiny signs of change, one is able to learn about trends and developments in the status of things. Tiny things are unobtrusive and hard to notice. But they may later cause very obvious consequences. Everything goes from being hidden to being conspicuous, and from small to large, and other chain reactions may occur in the process. So when doing something, we should fully understand and carefully handle its dynamics. We should see both the big picture and small details, get ready early to address any errors and problems that may arise, and ensure success of the undertaking. This also calls for gaining a good understanding of science.
DETAILED>>The term refers to learning for the purpose of self-cultivation. Confucian scholars view learning as a means of improving our moral life. By studying the classics and rules of etiquette, and by learning from the sages, we may constantly improve our morality in order to develop an ideal character. Therefore, learning is a process for self-cultivation and is practiced for our own good. The pursuit of learning is not to make a show of our knowledge or virtuous conduct in return for benefit.
DETAILED>>A person can become a sage by learning from other people. That is the way to find the path that leads up to the level of a sage, according to Zhang Xuecheng (1738-1801), a historian and thinker in the Qing Dynasty. A“sage”is honored by the ancients as having a character that is virtuous to the highest degree. Due to his understanding of the natural law and human nature, a sage is able to design and regulate rules to keep people’s moral life in order. His words and deeds set an ultimate example for morality in a society. However, a sage does not exist in isolation from ordinary people. Instead, he learns from them and draws the best from them, thus enabling himself to rise above them and guide them in the end. A“sage”and“ordinary people”are fundamentally two sides that are opposite yet connected, whose interactions pave the way for pursuing the goal of becoming a sage. Therefore, even though people around him may not offer a lot for him to learn, they are nevertheless a learning resource for a sage.
DETAILED>>In ancient China, people recorded events by writing on bamboo or wooden strips. They used boiled leather thongs threaded through little holes made on those strips to bind them together into a book according to a certain order. According to theRecords of the Historian, Confucius（551-479 BC） avidly readThe Book of Changesin his old age. He used the book so often that the leather thongs binding the wooden strips broke three times. Later on, this term is used to describe a person who reads diligently.
Leaves wither and fall on the ground by the tree roots. This metaphor implies that all creatures have an old home to return to even after a long sojourn in distant parts. It expresses nostalgia for one’s native place that has been common among Chinese people since ancient times. Although such feelings are inevitably conservative, they embody people’s good and honest love for their native soil and next of kin, and their feelings for the nation. It is a mainspring of their identification with their culture.
DETAILED>>This expression comes from The Analects, and is what Zixia (507-? BC), a disciple of Confucius (551-479 BC), said he had heard from others. Destiny is beyond one’s control, and ancients believed that the length of a person’s life was predestined. Confucian thinking held that humans should face life and death calmly as they are predetermined by destiny. What people should do is to constantly improve themselves morally during their life time.
DETAILED>>Life and death are of the utmost importance. “Life” refers to the lives of people, and “heaven” means the most important matters. The meaning of this phrase is similar to the expression that “life is of supreme importance.” The ancient Chinese regarded human beings as the most exalted form of life in the world. Life is the most precious because each person only has one life. Therefore, in judging cases, using military force, practicing medicine, etc., special caution must be exercised when lives are at stake. This exemplifies the humanistic Chinese spirit of respecting people and respecting life.
DETAILED>>From taxes and trails to trade and tillage – this line encompasses a set of progressive reforms introduced by Duke Wen of Jin (697 or 671-628 BC) during the Spring and Autumn Period that continue to resonate through history. By curtailing tax burdens for trade, keeping trade routes free from bandits and robbers, and alleviating taxes and corvee for peasants, the duke sought to energize farming and trade sectors, fuel production, and encourage the trans-regional flow of people, goods, and wealth, thereby amplifying societal prosperity. The modern relevance of this policy underscores the enduring value of creating an economic system that is open, accessible, and promotes mutual benefit.
DETAILED>>Wuqiong (无穷), literally “limitlessness,”has various meanings: (1) spatial boundlessness; (2) temporal endlessness; and (3) infinity in number, size, and so forth. As they explored limitlessness, the ancients recognized the relativity of the concept in terms of time, space, and other particular things. A switch in perspective may transform limitlessness into limitedness, and vice versa.
DETAILED>>It means to listen to diverse points of view. Before making decisions, leaders must listen to all kinds of opinions and synthesize them so as to extract the most sensible arguments. That is deemed a basic characteristic of a wise and worthy leader. To do so, a leader must be fair, impartial, and open-minded. Only in this way can the parties concerned speak their minds and make rational suggestions, which, in turn, will enable a leader to benefit from various ideas, weigh the trade-offs, make correct decisions, and ensure their successful implementation.
DETAILED>>Literary flexibility means that one should respect the rules for writing poetry or prose but not be bound by them; one should encourage change and innovation. The opposite of literary flexibility is literary rigidity under whose influence the writer mechanically imitates the forms of established writers without innovation. One way to attain literary flexibility in one’s works is to draw inspiration from others extensively and absorb their talent while refraining from sticking mechanically to the model. One should base oneself on his own feelings and the aesthetic principles so as to create new styles and new ways of expression. Influenced by the Chan spirit of liberal flexibility, literary critics of the Song Dynasty championed flexibility in literary pursuit and established it as an important principle guiding poetry and prose writing.
DETAILED>>The term refers to all kinds of writings, including what we call essays and books today. In the Pre-Qin period, this term was subsumed under literature. During the Han Dynasty, the term referred to writings other than wenxue (文学 documents of previous dynasties) to specifically mean essays, articles, history books, and treatises. In the Six Dynasties, the term, together with wenxue, began to assume the meaning of what later generations meant by literature, that is, writings for aesthetic appreciation which encompass every type of literary works. Zhang (章) also implies a movement of music played to its finish, or a single piece of music. Therefore, the term focuses on both meaning and structure as well as writing skills and techniques. Both Chinese characters in the term have the meaning of interwoven patterns and colors. Together, they signify a beautiful form, giving the term an aesthetic connotation. The earlier concept of the term is related to but different from that of wenxue, with the former focusing more on elegant diction and style, indicating increasing attention to the aesthetic value of literary works.
DETAILED>>This refers to paintings produced by ancient Chinese scholars and writers, as distinguished from those by craftsmen or court-hired artists. It is a sub-category of traditional Chinese painting, also known as "scholarly painting," "southern school painting," or simply "southern painting." Although Su Shi (1037-1101), a renowned Song Dynasty poet, first advanced this idea, Ming Dynasty painter and calligrapher Dong Qichang (1555-1636) regarded the Tang Dynasty poet Wang Wei (701?-761) as the true pioneer of literati painting. Its authors typically drew inspiration from scenery and image of mountains, rivers, trees, flowers, and birds, focusing on expressing their subjective perceptions and inner selves. Their works sometimes showed resentment and discontent with certain social phenomena. Stressing skillful use of brush and ink, literati painting transcended the restraints of form and technique, imbuing itself with real taste and verve.
DETAILED>>This term is a Confucian statement about the relationship between literature and ideas. Wen (文) refers to literary creations and works, while dao (道) refers to the ideas conveyed by literary works. Writers and philosophers in ancient China explicated these ideas as Confucian thought and ethics. Han Yu (768-824), leader of the mid-Tang-dynasty Classical Prose Movement advocating the prose style of the Qin and Han dynasties, and some others proposed that the purpose of writings should be in line with the classics of the ancient sages as well as promote them. Zhou Dunyi（1017-1073）, a neo-Confucian philosopher of the Song Dynasty, expounded the principle of literature serving as a vehicle of ideas. He concluded that literature was like a vehicle while ideas were like goods loaded on it, and that literature was nothing but a means and a vehicle to convey Confucian ideas. This theory was valuable because it stressed the social role of literature and emphasized that writers should know what they were writing about to ensure that their works conveyed correct ideas. However, it underestimated the aesthetic value of literature and later met opposition from thinkers and writers who emphasized the value of literature per se.
DETAILED>>Live a stable life and work happily. Anju (安居) literally means a secure house and by extension living a happy life. Leye (乐业) means enjoying one's work. Together they refer to the general state of good governance, with peace prevailing and everyone in their proper place, satisfied with work and content with life. It is the longing of the common people as well as the goal of good governance. It is a people-oriented political aspiration centering on securing people's livelihood.
DETAILED>>The term means life or livelihood of the people. Earning a living is often hard. Rulers should show empathy, provide necessary conditions for survival, and draw up suitable policies and systems. They should not bully or harm the people. Good state governance as well as lasting social peace and stability are dependent on this. If life is too harsh and people lack food and shelter, there will be desperation and unrest which will not benefit the rulers either. Providing a decent livelihood is the key to a peaceful and contented populace.
DETAILED>>This concept of living in harmony with others without losing moral ground was mentioned in early Confucian classics such as The Doctrine of the Mean and Xunzi. Confucianism believed that interpersonal relations should be in proper order and harmonious. But it was concerned that if one only pursues harmony, desire to foster personal ties can easily lead to a failure to abide by the moral code and to loss of moral ground. Confucianism therefore emphasized the importance of abiding by one’s moral standard while maintaining harmonious relations with others.
DETAILED>>Originally, the term referred to the Son of Heaven, dukes or princes, ministers, and senior officials who owned land and ruled the common people. It later referred to ducal monarchs and the emperor only. The Chinese character 君 is composed of two parts, namely, 尹 and 口. The top part 尹 means to run a country and govern its people, and the lower part 口 means to give orders. Ancient Chinese believed that a monarch or nobility must possess four qualities: first, having extraordinary virtues and be competent; second, having the mandate of heaven; third, in possession of land or manor; and fourth, having the ability to govern officials and common people, and enjoying their unfailing loyalty.
DETAILED>>The term originally referred to the lord of the people, the one who ruled on their behalf, i.e., the monarch. Later on it also referred to government officials. The people of ancient times regarded the “lord of the people” as “following the mandate of heaven and complying with the wishes of the people.” The people and their lord formed an organic whole like the human body and heart. In modern China, the term has become the Chinese equivalent of “democracy,” mainly meaning the fundamental principle of state power belonging to all of the people and also the political system and social conditions based on that principle. In essence democracy is government by the people who are able to exercise the right of managing state and society, and who, in this process, can freely express their opinions and safeguard their interests. Democracy is based on the principle of decision by the majority with due respect for the rights of individuals and the minority. Democracy is designed to safeguard the social status of citizens. It is a socialized form of human rights, and one of the core values conducive to a good society.
DETAILED>>The term of lotus rising out of water describes a scene of freshness, quiet refinement and natural beauty, in contrast to “gilded and colored” embellishments. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, people valued nature and favored this aesthetic view. In their artistic creations, they pursued the natural and fresh style like lotus rising out of water. They sought natural presentation of their ideas and were opposed to excessive ornamentation.
DETAILED>>Love and hate are two basic desires or emotions of humans, often classified under the category of “will” or“emotion”along with delight, anger, sadness, and joy. Compared to other emotions, love and hate have a more fundamental meaning. People usually think that delight, anger, sadness, and joy are presented based on love and hate. Love and hate are innate psychological abilities, and one should exercise restraint in loving or hating things. Control and regulation of one’s love and hate is an important function of propriety.
DETAILED>>This term means to love and care for the common people. This is not only a sentiment which those who govern should have for the common people, but also an important principle which must be adhered to in governance. The ancient Chinese believed that those who govern should use specific policies and measures to benefit the people and enable them to live and work peacefully, free from sufferings and unwarranted infringements. This is the precondition or basis for those who govern to win the respect of the people. "Loving the people" was not only an important political concept - it also extended to the military sphere and became an important principle when raising armies to make war. According to this principle, the people of both one's own side and that of the enemy should receive caring love. This is a manifestation of the Chinese thinking "people first" and "benevolence and righteousness."
DETAILED>>Love of others must follow the rules of moral conduct, and not be unprincipled, selfish or indulgent. De(德) here refers to moral behavior and consciousness, and is the foundation for upholding proper social order. Loving the people is on a personal emotional level, while morality is a set of commonly accepted rules of social conduct. If not grounded in morality, loving the people will go against the common social norms, and harm the integrity of both giver and receiver. The term expresses a spirit of respect for morality, social order, and common good.
DETAILED>>The ancient Chinese considered loving others of one’s own kind to be part of the fundamental nature of animals with consciousness and intelligence, and this was particularly true of humans, the most advanced of all creatures. Human love is first of all manifested in love for one’s own kind. If a human loves other beings but not his or her fellow humans, that is not true love. Thus, human love first of all reaches other human beings, and love for humans is the fundamental nature of human love and also the origin of love for other creatures. So to love other human beings is a defining attribute of human beings.
DETAILED>>Loyalty involves doing one’s utmost. A person in a certain position or office should wholeheartedly perform his duties and must not be influenced by personal interests. The object of loyalty can be the person who appoints you to your post or grants you a position； it can also be an organization, group or the state where you belong. For example, in ancient society it was thought the monarch should be loyal to the people while the subjects should be loyal to the monarch.
DETAILED>>In the literal sense, the Chinese character nian (年) means the ripening of crops. As crops are mostly harvested annually, the Chinese character nian has gradually come to refer to the period of one year, and later it is used to refer to the annual Spring Festival. When it comes to the calendar, it refers to the period of one year on the lunar calendar (lunisolar calendar), which has 12 months: 7 months each of 30 days and 5 months of 29 days, altogether 354 or 355 days. A leap year has 13 months, altogether 383 or 384 or 385 days a year. As a lunar calendar, it is closely related to agricultural production cycles in ancient China, and it epitomizes ancient Chinese people’s awareness of time and concept in an agrarian society. The Gregorian calendar from the West was adopted by the Republic of China in 1912, ushering in a dual system of lunar and solar calendars. As a result, nian (year) refers to a year on the solar or lunar calendar, depending on the context.
DETAILED>>This is the name of a poetic style. In a broad sense, lüshi (律诗) is poetry which stresses the requirements for rhythmic rules and forms; in a narrow sense, lüshi refers to such poetry other than quatrains with five- or seven-character lines, including five-character eight-line rhythmic poetry, seven-character eight-line rhythmic poetry, and five- or seven-character rhythmic poetry with ten or more lines. In ancient times, there were no strict regulations in regard to the rhythm of Chinese poetry. By the Southern Dynasties, however, the Yongming style, also known as the ”new poetry,” emerged, and began to demand the standardization of rhyme. In the early Tang Dynasty, based on the creation and exploration of some literati, poetic rules and forms gradually took shape, and rules-based poems were called contemporary or modern style poems, metrical poems or lüshi. Poems written before the establishment of poetic rules and forms or those created by later generations that did not follow the established rules and forms were called ancient style poems. The distinctive features of lüshi include the following: first, each line has the same number of characters, either five characters or seven characters. Second, the final characters of even sentences are rhyming with the level tone. Third, the poems with five- or seven-character lines each has eight lines, which can be broken down to four couplets, or pairs of related lines, namely, the first, second, third, and fourth pairs, and the second and third pairs must both be rhymed. Fourth, the characters used in the poem are arranged by level and oblique tones according to set rules. The characters in the same line must alternate between level and oblique tones. The characters of the lines in the same pair must match in level and oblique tones, and two related lines must be relative to each other. A lüshi poem with more than eight lines, whether it has five or seven characters per line, is just like adding rhymed and parallel pairs of lines between the first and last pairs. Orderly in form and harmony, and full of rhythm, lüshi is one of the most important styles of ancient Chinese poetry.
DETAILED>>The expressions are about the naturalness of literary and artistic works. The first one, “magically natural,” means that a literary or artistic work is completed naturally and achieves the acme of perfection without any sign of craft. The second, “overly crafted,” means that a work is meticulously crafted, but it is overly elaborate in style while lacking naturalness and spontaneity. “Magically natural” is used to refer to works accomplished by artists while “overly crafted” is used to describe works done by craftsmen. These two standards were proposed by Ming writer Li Zhi （1527-1602）in his “Random Thoughts,” which echoed his idea that writings must reflect the author’s true sentiments. Culturally, the distinction between “magically natural” and “overly crafted” is rooted in the Daoist thought of being harmonious with nature while forsaking excessive skills. Most Ming scholars favored literary naturalism and rejected elaboration and imitation.
DETAILED>>The purpose of raising and training an army for a long time is to use it for warfare at a critical time. The significance of this concept has two aspects: one is that for the country, building of the military is a long-term and continuous effort, which should not slacken because it is costly and armed battles are rare; the other is with regard to the officers and soldiers, who should be ready to come forward at critical moments and take up their duties faithfully and bravely. The extended meaning goes beyond the military and refers to long-term preparation or the accumulation of strength in normal times for use at critical moments or whenever necessary.
DETAILED>>The term means to observe and maintain the natural state of things. This notion first appeared in the book Laozi. The original meaning of su (素) is undyed silk; pu (朴) is unworked wood or timber. Laozi used these terms as analogies for people and objects in their natural untouched state. He believed that those in power should not try to influence people or things with ideas or demands that run counter to their natural conditions. Instead they should guide the populace back to its simple, natural origin. The term later came to mean “be unaffected by external factors and retain its earliest, pure nature.”
DETAILED>>This means to maintain the prices of goods at an appropriate level. It was an economic measure used in ancient China. Specifically, designated official positions and agencies were established which controlled certain important materials. These were sold when market prices were excessively high and bought when prices were excessively low. In this way, merchants were prevented from profiteering by hoarding goods, and prices were kept steady.Implicit in this approach was the idea that government has a responsibility to regulate markets. It did so by using economic measures and market actions; the goals of market regulation by the government were to suppress private monopolies, ensure balance and fairness, safeguard the interests of the general public, and ensure economic and social stability.
Dagu (大故) refers to a necessary and sufficient cause or condition. The Mohists categorized the causes of things being so into dagu (major cause) and xiaogu (小故minor cause). Dagu inevitably leads to the corresponding consequence, while its absence inevitably leads not to the consequence. To put it simply, dagu must be present, and its presence is enough for the occurrence of events.
DETAILED>>These concepts refer to different degrees of commonalities and differences. Hui Shi (370?-310?BC) first proposed the concepts of “major commonality and difference” and “minor commonality and difference.” He felt that there could be big commonalities and small differences, or small commonalities and big differences between things. However, these are only relative commonality and difference, and they are “minor commonality and difference.” On the other hand, at a fundamental level, all things can be said to be alike, and they can also be said to be different. From the maximally large“largest one”to the minimally small“smallest one,”things always differ in size–this is the “ultimate difference”between them. Yet both the “largest one” and the “smallest one”are also“one”–this is the“ultimate commonality”of all things. It is the“ultimate commonality”and the “ultimate difference”that form the “major commonality and difference.”
DETAILED>>This term means fundamental principles and standards of behavior. In comparison with minor principles, major principles are about the fundamental duties borne by people of different social status and how they should be performed; they are standards of conduct that people must observe. In ethical human relations, people may commit mistakes, but generally they will not defy major principles. If they should lose control of themselves, it may be the result of failing to withstand great pressure or to resist great temptation. Therefore, remaining true to major principles becomes a major challenge.
The term means to make political reform together with the people. Gengshi (更始) means to make a fresh start. The term used to refer to a new emperor ascending the throne, taking a new reign title or implementing a series of new policies. Later, it came to mean that the rulers worked together with the people trying to change the status quo and opening up new prospects. The term reflects a profound and far-reaching thought of putting people first, and highlights the spirit of monarchs and the people working with one heart and one mind to abolish what is old and establish in its place a new order.
DETAILED>>Analogies in a literary work should be conveyed clearly, and associations, subtly. This is an important proposition in ancient Chinese poetics. Examples of analogy and association were first found in the six basic elements of The Book of Songs.“Analogy” means comparing one thing to another, with the focus on the external similarities of things, in order to better express one’s feelings and thoughts, thus making oneself more thoroughly understood. With this in view, similarities between two things should be made apparent and exact. “Association,” too, compares one thing to another, but such a link is indirect and nuanced, created by an inner combination of sentiment, charm and atmosphere, which can spark readers to infer other things from one instance, allowing the meaning of the text to be fully realized. The notion of explicit analogy versus implicit association is widely applied to poetry creation. Specifically, analogy is adjacent, obvious and easily intelligible, whereas association is profound, covert and aesthetically pleasing.
DETAILED>>This concept means appraising someone’s character, ability, conduct and approach, which was a common practice from the late Han through the Jin and Wei dynasties. The practice was considered a good one when it was first introduced, as people were judged by their moral character and ability, not their family background, making it an important means of selecting officials based on their competence. Appraisal of others was a popular conversational topic among the people in the Wei and Jin dynasties. However, such appraisal gradually shifted towards people’s family status, power and influence in the late Wei and early Jin dynasties, which led to the establishment of the nine-rank system for selecting and appointing government officials. There was also a shift in making appraisals away from people towards poetry, paintings and calligraphic works. Thus making appraisals played a less important role in selecting officials while assuming a more significant role in the appreciation of art. This influenced literary criticism in the Southern and Northern Dynasties and led to the creation of works of literary critique on poetry, paintings and calligraphy.
DETAILED>>The ancient Chinese believed that good governance allowed people to lead a life of plenty. The ruler should be frugal, not extravagant or wasteful. He should make good use of the country’s material resources, reduce the corvée and tax burdens on the people so that they could live peaceful, prosperous, and happy lives. This belief was one of the sources of advocation for the people’s livelihood and socialist thinking in modern China.
DETAILED>>This term means that wording should be refined to highlight the essential message. Terseness is a mark of neat and thematically explicit writing. The idea originates from the process of cleansing metal ores for the removal of impurities, or from that of smelting metals. Figuratively, it refers to an authorial effort to capture the core message by cutting out redundant wording. As a way of writing, this involves the refinement of both content and wording; it sets a more clear-cut requirement on writers than the idea of “fusion for greater brevity,” which was proposed by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties. As a literary style, it calls for full agreement between wording, aspiration, and philosophical thought, as well as for conciseness.
DETAILED>>This term refers to those who, with their own strength, stand up for the weak and daringly face down injustice. It depicts an ideal personal character that finds its echo in the hearts of everyday Chinese people – a shared aspiration that resonates deeply in the national collective psyche. The inspirational appeal of a man of righteousness or hero springs from a fusion of intrinsic values, underpinned by a sense of righteousness and courage. Righteousness represents moral integrity, a dogged determination to uphold justice and to stand by one’s word. Courage, meanwhile, refers to an abiding commitment to righteousness – stepping up, lending a hand, selflessly giving, serving the wider good, and walking the talk. Man of righteousness or hero is a resonant symbol in Chinese culture, encapsulating a deep admiration for those who are ready to pursue justice with no thought of oneself, thus epitomizing the spirit of a true hero.
DETAILED>>The earliest meaning of this term, in contrast with the term petty man, referred to a ruler or people with high social standing. Later, moral character and ethical behavior were used to differentiate between a man of virtue and a petty man. Scholars of different schools have different understanding and standards for a man of virtue. Confucian scholars believed that such a person should observe proper rules of moral conduct, be able to resist external temptations, and thedesire to seek material gain.Daoists, however, held that a man of virtue should follow the rule of non-action, refuse to be bound by social conventions and act according to the highest standards of Dao.
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This expression means to manage wealth properly and speak correctly. The ancient Chinese regarded these to be the two basic functions of power. “To manage wealth” means enabling wealth to be allocated in a reasonable and orderly manner; “to speak correctly” means making officials speak in accordance with norms and laws, then further guiding the words and deeds of the people to also accord with norms and laws. Once the allocation of wealth is reasonable and words and deeds accord with norms and laws, good order and good conditions will ensue throughout the entire country and society. There are similarities between this concept and what is described today as tangible and intangible development.
The earliest meaning of the term was mandate of heaven, that is, the intentions and instructions that heaven expressed to humans. The implication was that Heaven meted out rewards and punishments on human beings as their moral conduct deserved. The mandate of heaven was considered an irresistible force that determined dynastic changes, the rise and fall of nations, and even the fate of ordinary people. Later, the link with Heaven became weaker; instead, the unavoidable destiny or fate prevailed. For human beings, the term implies the external limits that determine what is possible and what is not. In one sense, it expresses the helplessness of human beings.
DETAILED>>The term means order and bestowment from Heaven. “Mandate of heaven” mainly contains three different meanings: The first is the order of heaven over human affairs. Such order first of all focuses on a change of the supreme ruler’s authority: Heaven empowers the virtuous to attack and replace a ruler who has lost his virtue, and thus enjoy the highest and unsurpassed power and benefits. Secondly, mandate of heaven means fate, which is irresistible and imposes limit on human power. Thirdly, the term indicates the natural disposition bestowed by heaven upon human being. According to The Doctrine of the Mean, “Mandate of heaven endows one with his nature.” Song-dynasty Confucian scholars developed this idea, proposing that human nature was the “nature of mandate of heaven,” that is, the inherent pure and good nature one receives from heaven.
DETAILED>>This term means one should not only have a good command of the basic rules that govern things, but also know how to deal with exceptional situations or problems in a flexible manner. It suggests that one should not just adhere to principles, but also act according to circumstances. Chang (常permanence) and bian (变change) are two opposing concepts in ancient Chinese philosophy. The nature of things that decides what they are, and their basic rules or general principles that are relatively stable are called chang (permanence); but when it comes to specific situations or ways to deal with them, they are different and change in different circumstances, thus they are called bian (change). Relative to change, permanence is what endures within change. Permanence is fundamental while change is a deviation. Therefore, one needs not only to have a good command of the basic rules and general principles of things, but also know how to apply these rules and principles in a flexible manner according to objective circumstances. The mastery of both permanence and change reflects ancient Chinese people’s perception of both generality and particularity as well as principles and flexibility. It also shows their methodology in the application of both.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a method to carry out translation and interpretation using Chinese thought for the Buddhist doctrines. During the Wei, Jin, and the Southern and Northern Dynasties period, when a large quantity of Buddhist scriptures was translated and introduced, Buddhist thought was completely unfamiliar for the Chinese world. The Chinese people, who were keen on the law of Buddha, tried to fathom the meaning of the Buddhist scriptures. They borrowed the vocabulary of the scriptures of Laozi, Zhuangzi, etc. The concepts and even ideas of these scriptures were appended. They developed their argumentation and that was called “matching meanings.” “Matching” takes the meaning of measuring. So this period was also called the Buddhist period of matching meanings. “Matching meanings” is a kind of method of interpretation. It is an interpretation of Buddhism from the standpoint of Chinese thought, constructing a system of thought of Buddhism in the world of the Chinese. Therefore, it has produced a fundamental influence in the sinification of Buddhism.
DETAILED>>Maximal functioning means that all kinds of appearances of Dao in the external world are the greatest manifestation and functioning of Dao. Daoist scholars believe that the internal Dao determines the basis for changes in the external world, and that all kinds of forms in the objective world derive from the active, innate nature of Dao, the result of unity of substance and function. In “Twenty- four Styles of Poetry,” Sikong Tu（837-908）, a literary critic in the Tang Dynasty, made this notion a term of literary criticism to highlight the view that the rich and colorful imagery in poetry represents unity of the internal spirit of the work and its external shape. In poetry writing and appreciation, one should focus on the harmony between the appearance and the essence.
DETAILED>>Melancholy refers to an artistic style in poetic works in which sentiment expressed is subtle and the message is profound. Ancient Chinese poets represented by Du Fu（712-770）, keenly concerned about state affairs and people’s hardships, tried hard to understand what caused the rise and fall of a nation and sought ways to save the country and the people, but all to no avail. Such frustration and disappointment are thus reflected in their poems. With meticulously crafted structure, rhythm, and tones, their works give readers a special aesthetic appreciation of melody and infinite afterthought.
DETAILED>>This is an ancient style of official communication, through which a high-ranking official expressed his gratitude or presented a petition to the emperor. Zhang, or memorial of gratitude, and biao, or memorial of petition, differed little in style. Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties observed in his literary critique The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons that an ideal piece of writing should convey its essential message in a clear and in-depth way, state or analyze a case succinctly and thoroughly, and obey rules of ritual propriety and standards of writing.
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This genre of writing was used by officials
to report important matters or present personal views to the emperor. Zou (奏) here means “a reminder
to the throne,” i.e., a statement of an administrative matter plus a clear-cut view
on how to handle it. Qi (启) here means
“a candid view on state business.” The former should be prudent, insightful and
plain in style, whereas the latter, functioning as both a memorial and a
petition, should be brief and unassuming in style. Liu Xie (465?-520) of the
Southern Dynasties observed that this kind of writing was prepared for making
an oral presentation to the emperor. It reported an urgent situation, exposed
wrongdoers, expressed one’s views on governance issues, and proposed ways to
handle them. Therefore, unlike a memorial of gratitude or petition, a memorial
to present one’s view to the emperor should be objective, discreet and
succinct, and unaffected by one’s own mood. This observation still holds true
for writing official communications today.
This term means to feel sad for others’ sadness and feel painful for others’ suffering. It is a combination of the Buddhist concept of “mercy” and Confucian concept of “compassion.” “Mercy” in Buddhism implies both kind-heartedness that brings peace and happiness to all and sympathy that relieves others from their misery. “Compassion” means sympathizing with people from the bottom of one’s heart over their misfortunes. Put together, they describe a noble mindset that takes other people’s suffering as one’s own, commiserates with the unfortunate while trying one’s best to free people from their miseries or disasters, and helps them to regain their peace and happiness. This kind of true benevolence and noble mind comes from a human being’s innate moral sense and is the source of the spiritual force that drives noble and eminent personalities.
DETAILED>>The principles or methods to win a war must be based on the success in politics, that is to say, military outcome is determined by the strength of politics. Ancient Chinese strategists and legalists looked at war from the angle of politics, regarding war as political in essence and an extension of politics. Efficient governance and social harmony among the people were the decisive factors of winning a war. That “the methods of warfare must be based on the success in politics” is an expression of the same idea as the Prussian military strategist Carl von Clausewitz (1780-1831) in his On War when he suggested that war was the continuation of politics by another mean, but the former is 2,000 years earlier than the latter.
This term, first coined by Li Yu (1611-1680), refers to the last scene of the first half of a play. It includes the requirement for and techniques of concluding the first half of the play. Besides the structural completeness of this section, all the relevant characters and events should have appeared by now or been duly introduced, and no ongoing event should be interrupted without a proper reason. Meanwhile, main conflicts should have unfolded, leaving clues to be uncovered later and keeping the audience in suspense. A serial drama, performed in multiple installments, as well as extra long folklore, often use this withdrawal technique to temporarily satisfy the audience's curiosity or keep them guessing what is to come next.
This term refers to the mild and broad-minded manner with which the Confucian classic, The Book of Songs, edifies people. Confucian scholars during the Qin and Han dynasties believed that although some poems of The Book of Songs were satirical and remonstrative in tone, it still focused on persuading people instead of just reproving them. Most of the poems in the book were moderate in tone and meant to encourage the reader to learn to be moderate and honest. Encouraging people to be mild and gentle, sincere and broadminded is a manifestation of Confucian doctrine of the mean, and being fair and gentle is an aesthetic value, which is also a standard for literary and artistic style that stresses the need for being gentle in persuasion and for edification.
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When there are armed conflicts, military action is only supplementary to good rule, which is the basis for unity and governance. Wu (武) means armed force or military means, and wen (文) means benevolent rule and edification. This notion was first proposed by the military strategist Yuliaozi of the Warring States Period. He said that how well plants grow depends more on the quality of the seeds than on the skill and care by the farmer. He used this analogy to illustrate the relationship between using military force and benevolent rule to unify and govern the state. To ensure long term peaceful governance over an obeying population depends on benevolent and enlightened rule, with military means only as a supplement. This is one of the earliest descriptions of the relationship between politics and military: the army is always subordinate to the politics, and serves the politics.
The term means cognitive activities of the mind. As there are different views on the relationship between the mind and the external world, people’s understanding of the mind’s cognitive process also varies. Some people emphasize the role of the mind in shaping ethical standards in daily life and making them a source of inner strength. Cognition of the mind is a prerequisite for moral cultivation and ethical living. As the mind is often in a blocked or unstable state, it needs to be nurtured with proper guidance before it can play its due role. However, others argue that the mind’s cognitive activities make one concerned about the evolving complexity of the external world and feel anxious about life. It is therefore necessary to get rid of the mind’s cognitive activities so as to leave the mind in a state of tranquility free from outside interference.
DETAILED>>Xiaogu (小故) refers to an insufficient cause or condition. The Mohists categorized the causes of things being so into dagu (大故major cause) and xiaogu (minor cause). It is uncertain whether xiaogu leads to the corresponding consequence, but it is certain that its absence leads not to the consequence. In simpler terms, xiaogu is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the occurrence of events.
DETAILED>>This term refers to norms of conduct observed in daily life. Relative to major principles, minor principles concern detailed regulations and standards of conduct and are about routine duties of people of different social status, and how exactly they should be performed. “Minor principles” are the rules that people must observe in their daily life. These principles are not of fundamental significance themselves, but their negligence of them will lead to unseemly behavior. Nevertheless, as long as major principles are always observed, there is no need to get caught up in the minor ones.
Since ancient times, the term xiaokang (小康) has been understood to mean a state of peace and moderate prosperity. As an important political concept of Confucianism, it has been used to refer to what was seen as the commendable political climate achieved through the efforts of outstanding rulers such as Yu the Great of the Xia Dynasty, King Tang of the Shang Dynasty, kings Wen, Wu (?-1043 BC), and Cheng (?-1021 BC) of the Zhou, and the Duke of Zhou. This social climate was characterized by national stability, good order, high public awareness of etiquette and law, and a contented people. Such a society was held up as an ideal society, second only to that of Great Harmony, or datong (大同). Today, the Chinese people are being called upon to build a society of modest prosperity with balanced economic, political, cultural, social, and ecological advancement. As the goal of Chinese-style modernization, this xiaokang society is a new concept with deep historical and cultural roots.
DETAILED>>Xunzi （313？-238 BC）first proposed this idea as a way to cultivate rectitude. He believed that following human nature alone leads to endless contention over external objects, resulting in disruption and discord within communities. Ethics and morals are instilled in a person through nurture and education. By conforming to the demands of proper speech and conduct over a long period of time, a person gradually develops a sense of propriety and inner morality.
DETAILED>>Originally, this term meant to educate and influence people. Later, it came to refer to the function of shaping customary social practices, namely, the educational role of literary and artistic works in changing social behaviors and popular culture. Originating from “Introductions to Mao’s Version of The Book of Songs,” the term is one of the important concepts of the Confucian school on the function of the arts. It believes that poetry and music have a role to play in shaping people’s mind, reflecting the notion that rulers can educate and influence the general public by imparting a particular ideology in a top-down fashion, thereby achieving the desired effect of cultivating the general culture. The influence of this concept is far-reaching； it has impacted much of artistic creation in China, all the way from the poetry and music of the pre-Qin period to literary and artistic works in the modern times. It not only reflects the Confucian view on moral education, but also imparts a sense of social responsibility on writers and artists. However, if an artistic work overemphasizes moral cultivation, it runs the risk of placing ideology before artistic form, thus compromising its aesthetic value. The right way is to embed teaching in entertainment and let a literary or artistic work exert its influence on social mentality in a subtle and imperceptible way.
DETAILED>>This term refers to elevation of moral character, a concept which is first mentioned in early Confucian classics such as The Analects and The Book of Changes. Confucianism placed great emphasis on human morals, believing that such morals should be constantly fostered and elevated; and this is the process of moral elevation. By steadfastly observing the moral principles of loyalty and good faith, people can improve their pronouncements and deeds, thereby elevating their moral cultivation. Moral elevation can only be achieved through sustained efforts.
DETAILED>>Moral fulfillment of one’s mind and heart means beauty in character. This term comes from the book Mencius. Mencius’ (372?-289 BC) understanding of beauty relates closely to Confucian morality. To his mind, beauty is one of the qualities on the rating scale for personality, which ranges from those of virtue, honorableness, beauty, magnanimity, saintliness, all the way up to the divine. Central to all these is moral fulfillment, which refers to the perfection, harmony and completeness of a person’s moral well-being. When a person is enriched by virtue and honorableness, he is filled with tremendous moral strength and thus attains a beauty of personality. In other words, beauty is a spiritual state of worthiness achievable when moral self-sufficiency becomes elevated into an aesthetic ecstasy, reflecting the Confucian ideal of perfect harmony between morality and aesthetics, or that between beauty and goodness. In literary criticism, this is shown via the argument that a writer should strive to be upright before he can create noble-spirited works. This term sets moral fulfillment as an important criterion for judging the quality of a literary work, and advocates a unity between artistic excellence and moral well-being.
DETAILED>>The educational function of a literary work is best fulfilled through discreet emotional influence, based on the belief that a literary work can affect and purify the reader's soul through descriptions of love between men and women and of true feeling available in the world to finally influence and transform social morality. This term was first used by Feng Menglong (1574-1646), a late-Ming writer of popular fiction. Feng emphasized that "feeling" is an instinct or natural inclination of humans, starting with affection between man and woman and then spreading to relationships between monarch and ministers, father and son, or brothers and friends. Without true feeling, a literary work cannot touch the heart and morally edify people. In imbuing moral instruction with true feeling, Feng did not intend to do away with ethical reasoning. In fact, he held that true feeling is far more fundamental and authentic, adhering more closely to human nature. The theory of imbuing moral education with true feeling arose from a general respect for sincerity and authenticity which burgeoned around the middle period of the Ming Dynasty, reflecting also Feng's literary view and outlook on life. He spent decades compiling and writing popular fictions, thus bringing his ideas to fruition.
DETAILED>>This term means high aspiration and moral principles. Aspiration refers to the powerful innate drives such as beliefs and courage that underpin one’s ambition and enables its realization, whereas moral principles guard and sustain one’s moral and righteous behavior. Today, the term in a general sense means to uphold justice as well as an undaunted spirit that remains unwavering and unyielding before any coercion and seduction. This type of spiritual quality has been championed by men of justice throughout generations and is regarded as the bedrock to anchor oneself in the world. For several thousands of years, this principle of moral integrity has guided China through thick and thin towards prosperity and longevity.
DETAILED>>This term refers to maintaining moral integrity. It comes from the book Xunzi. Xunzi (313?-238 BC) believed that one could improve his moral cultivation through constant study. However, the impact of external factors could cause moral lapse. Hence Xunzi attached great importance to maintaining moral integrity. This means that one should always be guided by the norms of propriety in his thoughts, statements and acts, and should be unaffected by any external factors. Maintaining moral integrity is the basis for refining one’s character.
DETAILED>>The “moral mind” refers to people’s awareness of moral principles. It is set in contrast to the “human heart,” and appears in classics such as the “Old Text” version of The Book of History, and Xunzi. Confucian scholars in the Song Dynasty attached great importance to both terms and made interpretations and expositions about them. They believed that the conscious mind, or heart, involved two aspects: one, conscious of moral principles, was daoxin, or the “moral mind”; the other, consumed with human desires aroused by the sensory organs such as eyes and ears, was called renxin，or the “human heart.” The consciousness of moral principles in the “moral mind” comes from innate human nature working in agreement with heavenly principles, but it is elusive. It needs to be allowed full play so that the excessive desires of the “human heart” can be held in check.
DETAILED>>The mother country is the country where your parents are or came from, or where you were born and belong to; it is your homeland; it mostly refers to your own country and motherland, which is similar to sangzi (桑梓 native place). This name connotes the natural emotion of intertwining the sense of community based on kinship and geography with the love for hometown, and the patriotism that arises therefrom. Patriotism is a deep and lasting tradition of the Chinese nation, the core of the Chinese national spirit, a firm belief and a source of strength for every Chinese.
DETAILED>>This
term means to hold obsequies in a proper way and cherish the memory of
those long deceased. This
is what Zengzi (505-436 BC)
believed one should do toward the deceased. As someone passed away, with the passage of time, people close to him would forget the care and love shown to
them by the deceased. So people should follow due procedures at a funeral to express their grief
over the deceased
and memorialize the
altruism, virtue and achievement of the dead even long after his death. Zengzi believed this would increase care and love among the people.
To hold a funeral and mourn one who has passed away is an important ritual in the lives of the Chinese. In ancient China, there were detailed rules for such rites, based on the relations between the mourner and the deceased, such as the length of mourning, dress code, and the specific procedures to pay last respects to the deceased. By observing such rites, people expressed their grief over and love for the deceased. At the same time, mourning rites also served to control mourners' excessive grief, so as not to affect their health. Rites for mourners differed according to their relations with the deceased and represented the ancient people's understanding of the norms governing human relations. Today, both the form of mourning and the human relations reflected in such rites have changed along with changes in social customs.
DETAILED>>The term refers to two fundamental states in the existence of things, namely, movement and stillness. These two kinds of states are antithetic, but they also rely on each other and change into each other. Ancient Chinese had different views about the constant or the intrinsic state of the existence of things. Confucian scholars believed that “movement” was the fundamental state of existence of things, and that all things under heaven and on earth were in perpetual change and motion. Daoist scholars held that concrete things in motion were originally still, and that they would eventually return to stillness. Buddhists maintained that things were inherently all still and that the movements and changes people saw were just illusionary.
DETAILED>>This term means that an essay dwells too much on the luxurious life of a monarch to the neglect of the author’s original intention of admonishing him. In the Western Han Dynasty, writer Yang Xiong (53 BC-AD 18) held that although Sima Xiangru (179?-118 BC) always ended on a note of satirical criticism in his prose-poetry, he devoted too much space to the description and glorification of a monarch’s luxurious life, bringing readers’ attention to the grand achievements of the empire and feeding the monarch’s arrogance, thus impairing the admonitory effect. Therefore, Yang criticized Sima Xiangru for such a style of writing.
DETAILED>>Music, as a way of expressing the inner feelings of human beings, allows no expression of false sentiment. According to the Confucian views on music education, a person whose heart is touched by what happens externally will naturally express his inner feelings through music. Therefore, music faithfully reflects the emotions and will of human beings, something that cannot be falsified. Thus, if a person thinks good things or does good deeds and rejects undesired temptations, he can achieve inner peace and harmony. The voices made or music composed by such people are naturally sincere and elegant. However, if a person behaves in an undesirable way, the voices made or tunes composed by him are unpleasant. No person with unacceptable thoughts can create sincere and elegant music.
DETAILED>>Music conforming to virtue reflects the standard of social morality and the high levels of people’s moral character. It is thus the ideal type of music for music education upheld by Confucianism. When the state was stable and orderly, sages established six different rhythms of huangzhong (黄钟), taicu (太簇), guxian (姑洗), ruibin (蕤宾), yize (夷则), and wuyi (无射), and modulated the arrangement and ratio of musical notes on the five-tone scale of gong (宫),shang (商), jue (角), zhi (徵), and yu (羽) (roughly corresponding to 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 in the numbered musical notation), representing music conforming to virtue. Such music epitomized the court hymns and eulogies. Morality is believed to be the root of humanity, and music conforming to virtue educates and edifies the populace, adjusting their behavior to the heavenly way and enhancing their moral integrity. One who has entered the realm of virtue experiences harmony between heaven and earth, enjoys inner peace, which thereby promotes an ethically harmonious society on all fronts.
DETAILED>>In ancient China, music, together with poetry, was a way to conduct political education. Reviewing music education in the Zhou Dynasty, the Confucian scholars before the Qin-dynasty unification of China at the time concluded that music could transform social and cultural practices, stir up one’s inner emotions, and cultivate a good character. On this basis, they developed a comprehensive Confucian theory of music and music education. Subsequently, both “music education” and “poetry education” became important subjects in the official school system, forming a key part of early Chinese ritual and music culture.
DETAILED>>Confucianism sees a close relationship between rites and music, both of which are indispensable for maintaining a country’s stability and social harmony. Rites are used to ensure restraint and differentiation, and music is used to ensure harmony and unity of mind. The belief that music harmonizes the voices of the people states the functions of music. As sounds arise from the minds of different people, huge differences in such voices reflect the richness of their mental activities. People in different situations who have different voices naturally differ in their emotions and feelings. When music is employed to harmonize voices, people in different situations will be influenced and moved by it, and this will lead to unity in public mood and eventual harmony in the entire society.
DETAILED>>According to the Confucian views on rites, music and music education, music arises from the human mind and moves the people. A country enjoying peace and order makes people feel peaceful and harmonious. In an era of peace and stability, people will naturally be in a peaceful mood, which finds expression in the idyllic and merry styles of music created by them. The idyll and merriness of music helps foster a fine social atmosphere by creating serenity and mental harmony among the public. In this sense, music has a political function, as it helps maintain order and cultivate morals and mores.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the music of a state that is about to disintegrate. Later, it also refers to decadent and immoral music. The Confucian view was that music of a state on the verge of collapse tended to be dejected and demoralizing. As the downtrodden people endured immense suffering, their music and poetry were invariably full of sorrow and bitterness. If the ruler failed to wake up to the reality, the fall of his state was imminent.
DETAILED>>Confucian scholars believed that music interacts with both society and its political evolution; it also reflects the rise and decline of a state’s political strength and changes of social customs. If a state suffers from political corruption and social turmoil, its music and poetry will be full of resentment and anger. Hearing such music and poetry, the ruler must promptly review his governance and correct abuse of power so as to avoid downfall.
DETAILED>>Confucian scholars believed that music interacts with both society and its political evolution; it also reflects the rise and decline of a state’s political strength and changes of social customs. Music education fosters good governance and social stability. In an age of peace and stability with enlightened governance and harmony, its music and poetry are characterized by serenity and joyfulness. “Music of an age of good order” also refers to some eulogies in The Book of Songs.
DETAILED>>Musical sounds, or simply music, are artistically rhythmical sounds flowing forth from one’s stirring emotions. Ancient Chinese often made a distinction between musical sounds and plain sounds. Sounds created by a natural environment are plain sounds, while those created when emotions well up in one’s heart is music. A single sound is called sheng (声), different sounds that come together are called yin (音); when these sounds beautifully fit together, they are called music (yue 乐). Ancient Chinese believed that musical sounds derive from one's inner motions, and that the music of a country or a region reflects the popular sentiments and the social mores there. Hence Confucian scholars believed that art and literature demonstrate both virtues and flaws in a country's governance and therefore play the role of moral education.
Shi (实) refers to an existing object, while ming (名) refers to a name, a title or an appellation given to an object. A name is given on the basis of substance, and it cannot be separated from the knowledge of the substance. Names give expression to people’s understanding about the essence of objects and their interrelations, and the way in which they handle such interrelations. By giving names, people integrate all things and all objects into a certain order. The position and significance of an object in the whole system are determined on the basis of the name, title or the appellation given to it.
DETAILED>>These are the three ways of expression employed in The Book of Songs: a narrative is a direct reference to an object or an event, an analogy metaphorically likens one thing to another, and an association is an impromptu expression of a feeling, a mood or a thought, or using an objective thing as metaphor for sensibilities. Confucian scholars of the Han Dynasty summarized and formulated this concept of narrative, analogy, and association, which later became the basic principle and method in classical Chinese literary creation.
DETAILED>>This may be used to describe either social status or precedence in seniority. In a specific system, or order, it is used to refer to the natural attributes and limitations that differentiate one thing from another. It projects the distinct quality of one thing and at the same time draws the line that marks its difference from others, such as the attributes that differentiate heaven from man, between private and public, and between life and death. It can derive from either natural law or designated titles or standards. As far as the innate character of objects or a person is concerned, the term xingfen (性分)is used, meaning “different characters between different objects or people.” In human relations, the responsibility for different people of social status is called zhifen (职分), meaning the special quality that distinguishes one person’s responsibility from that of another.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the features and limitations determined by the intrinsic nature of all things. Guo Xiang (？-312), a scholar in the Western Jin Dynasty, pointed out that each person or object has his or its own intrinsic natural attributes, such as size and shape of an object, or the life expectancy and intelligence or lack of it of a person. The natural attributes of a person or an object are inborn and therefore unchangeable. All things should remain content with their natural attributes. If people and objects follow their own nature and act within the scope of their natural attributes, they can enjoy unhindered freedom of movement.
DETAILED>>Natural grace, a term for poetic study (often in contrast to the “melancholy” poetic style), refers to free and unconstrained aesthetic style and artistic appeal in poetic works. It gives expression to the imagination of the poet, the natural and free disposition of his spirit, and his pursuit of aesthetic enjoyment. When in such a state of mind, the poet is “totally absorbed in his interaction with heaven and earth,” roaming freely in boundless time and space. The concept represents a poetic style in which the poet and what he portrays in his poem merge into a natural whole.
DETAILED>>The term means the universal law observed by all things in heaven and on earth as well as by human society. Confucian scholars in the Song and Ming dynasties held that the essence of heaven was natural law, and they regarded natural law as the realm of ultimate significance. Natural law is the essence or the source of things, deciding the inherent nature of humans and things. It is the law of nature and the foundation of moral conduct in the human society. Natural law transcends visible, concrete things, but it also exists in each concrete thing. In terms of human nature, natural law expresses itself in the innate good nature one is bestowed upon by heaven, as opposed to “human desire.”
DETAILED>>Literally, this term means the rules and orderliness of heaven and earth. According to Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, Zichan (?-522 BC) of the State of Zheng proposed the concept to explain the essence and justification of rites. Zichan believed that the movements of heaven and earth followed eternal rules that created a consistent and rational order. Man too should imitate this in word and deed in an orderly, rational, and proper way. The constraints that rites place on human behavior, and the resulting social ethics and harmony are all manifestations of these laws of nature. The expression later came to mean anything that is proper, or any reasoning that is justified.
DETAILED>>Mountains and rivers accord with Dao by way of their shapes. Zong Bing (375-443), a painter of the Southern Song Dynasty, in his “On the Creation of Landscape Paintings” expanded on a saying by Confucius （551-479 BC）– “A virtuous man loves mountains and a wise man loves water.” Zong held that mountains and rivers not only displayed their natural splendor to humanity, but also demonstrated the natural law of changes. Therefore, they were loved by men of virtue. This term shows the aesthetic view of people in the period of the Six Dynasties.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to those calligraphic works, poems, essays, and other literary and artistic works that are natural, leisurely and simple in style but have profound implications. A natural and leisurely style rejects excessive embellishment and is not bound by any particular forms. Created by Su Shi (1037–1101) in the Song Dynasty as a term of literary and art criticism, this concept had great influence on literary and artistic works in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Based on the thought of Zhuangzi （369？-286 BC） and including the thinking of the Chan Sect, this concept stresses the need to be leisurely and simple and the need to avoid being opinionated, to break free from the fetters of rules and regulations and to take things as they come to ensure that an artistic work embodies the beauty of leisure, simplicity, freedom, and naturalness.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the primordial state of things, unaffected by the various meanings imposed on it by man. The concept of naturalness in philosophy is different from that of nature in the ordinary sense. In daily language, the term refers to the physical world, which is independent of human interference, as opposed to human society. In philosophy, there is also a natural state of man and society. In political philosophy, “naturalness” specifically applies to the natural state enjoyed by ordinary people free from the intervention of government supervision and moral edification. Daoism holds that in governance a monarch should conform to the natural state of the people.
DETAILED>>Humans and Nature respond to each other. This theory was put forward by Dong Zhongshu (179-104BC) , who had inherited his predecessors’ thinking and believed that things of similar nature could respond to each other. According to him, humans are a duplication of Nature, therefore they respond to each other. Changes of Nature will affect human beings and their activities. Human actions and words, as well as the order or disorder of human society are reflected in Nature by astronomical signs. If the ruler of a state has said or done something treacherous, calamity or unnatural phenomenon may occur to reflect this. Dong Zhongshu, with this theory as his basis, tried to persuade the ruler to govern virtuously by citing historical calamities or unnatural phenomena.
DETAILED>>Changes in nature follow constant rules. This concept comes from Xunzi (313?-238BC). But this idea has an even longer history. The ancient Chinese believed that changes in nature followed certain rules. More importantly, the rules or laws governing nature are constant and are not affected by changes in human affairs or humans’ attitude towards nature. Therefore, the ways of nature constitute a constant background for human life and exert a constant influence on human beings and their affairs. However, different scholars have different understandings of the specific content of the rules of nature and its relationship with human beings.
DETAILED>>In writing poetry, poets should neither totally adhere to nor digress too much from the objects depicted. This term includes two aspects: the relationship between words, images and the objects depicted, and the relationship between the poem's theme and the objects depicted. It emphasizes that if the objects depicted resemble the subject too closely, the poem will sound insipid and mundane; but if the objects depicted are too detached from the subject, the poem will sound superficial and farfetched. In addition to the requirement of depicting objects, odes to objects should also convey implied meaning which cannot be forced. Otherwise, they will quite likely fall into a stereotype. Only when a proper balance is achieved between the depiction of objects and its implied sentiment can excellent odes to objects be produced.
DETAILED>>Confucianists believe that the aim of a government official is to have people live in peace and contentment. Officials must always bear in mind the people’s well-being, be concerned about their suffering, and do their best to keep them free from misery. This embodies the Confucian concept of “benevolent governance,” a fine Chinese ethical tradition and the responsibility of those with lofty ideals, working for social prosperity and the people’s well-being. This concept is well expressed in the line “Worry before everyone else has to worry, and feel happy only after everyone else can feel happy” in “Memorial to Yueyang Tower” written by Fan Zhongyan ( 989 -1052 ), an eminent minister of the Song Dynasty.
This term is an alternative designation for China. According to The Book of History, the country consisted of nine zhou (州), namely Jizhou, Yanzhou, Qingzhou, Xuzhou, Yangzhou, Jingzhou, Yuzhou, Liangzhou, and Yongzhou. There are similar references to the nine zhou in classic works of the same or later period, such as The Rituals of Zhou, Er Ya, and Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals. The nine zhou were never adopted as actual administrative divisions of the country, but they did show the general geographical area inhabited by the Chinese people since the late Spring and Autumn Period.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the state of having left samsara, the circle of rebirth. The literal meaning of nirvana is extinction or blowing off, in contrast to affliction, which is burning like fire. It refers to the attainment of a purified state where one attains enlightenment and eradicates affliction, birth, and death. This is the primary goal for all Buddhist practices. There are two types of nirvana: with and without remainder. In “nirvana with remainder,” the practioner's body, owing to the karmic results of his or her previous lives, remains even after the enlightenment. In “nirvana without remainder,” where the karma has been totally eliminated, and his or her physical form and consciousness are brought to an end, he or she is delivered from samsara for good. Mahayana scriptures reinvent the notion of “nirvana” by interpreting it as the perfect comprehension of the ultimate reality, so to proclaim that essentially nirvana and the mundane world are not exclusive to each other.
DETAILED>>This refers to a state of mind that is pure and proper with no depraved or evil thoughts. This is a well-known critique made by Confucius (551-479 BC) on The Book of Songs, a collection of more than 300 poems. In his opinion, these poems may be summarized as pure and proper in thoughts with no depravity, keeping with the beauty of balanced harmony. This concept has always been held in high respect among scholars over the years because of the important position in history The Book of Songs. It is often used to judge and enjoyed by both Confucius and critique writers and writings, although some of the poems in The Book of Songs are not fully up to the standard of “no depraved thoughts” due to their unbridled feelings and candidness.
Fish cannot survive in the water that is too clear. With no plankton in water, fish have nothing to feed on and are bound to die. This is a natural phenomenon. Drawing inspiration on it, ancient Chinese believed that one should not set the bar too high for a person or something, criticize a person for failing to be perfect, or be too strict with others. Instead, they held that one should be tolerant and inclusive. This term echoes the thinking of "having great virtue and carrying all things."
Quoted from The Book of Rites, a Confucian classic, this proposition justified the necessity of cultivating aristocratic virtues, which served as a reminder that aristocrats should not take pride in their noble birth but work hard to improve their social status and realize from such improvement that nobility is defined by virtue rather than birth. In the context of ancient China, this proposition acquired a positive role in negating the decisiveness of descent and implying that all men are created equal in terms of character. To put it another way, Heaven does not create one superior or inferior to another.
DETAILED>>When no sagacious person was ignored, all men with virtue and talent were employed by the government. This is a demonstration of the ancient concept of “
exalting the worthy.” Since ancient times, China has emphasized that people should be appointed to official positions in accordance with their virtue, and each person should perform his or her role to the fullest. This was believed to guarantee the sound governance of the state. All systems for selecting people for official posts in ancient China, including selection by recommendations or by imperial examinations, were established on the basis of this conception. The principle of “no sagacious person is ignored” was regarded as one of the symbols of good governance of a country.
DETAILED>>All creative literary expressions draw on works of earlier writers. This concept, put forward by Huang Tingjian ( 1045-1105 ), a Northern Song literati, states that literary creativity should be based on extensive reading of works of earlier writers. At the same time, one should turn iron into gold by making creative use of the expressions and meanings of such works. The relationship between inheritance and origin in works is generally reflected in the use of allusions and the adaptation of expressions, phrases and imagery from earlier works. However, one should not just quote expressions, phrases and imagery from these works, nor blindly copy them, so as not to fall into the trap of retrogression. Therefore, Huang's concept needs to be handled carefully.
Gui (贵), meaning “noble” or “expensive,” and jian (贱), meaning “lowly” or “cheap,” form a pair of opposites used to assess the value of things. These terms find application in three scenarios. First, they are employed to appraise the value or price of objects. Second, they serve to evaluate the identity or status of individuals within social hierarchies. Lastly, they are used to judge people’s morality based on certain ethical standards. Confucian scholars emphasized that moral nobility should hold greater value and should be more worthy of pursuit and admiration than mere social status. Some others argued that the distinction between gui and jian was relative, depending on different subjective perspectives or standards.
DETAILED>>Noble spirit is a powerful source of cultivating integrity in one’s life. In Mencius’ （372？-289 BC） view, it goes hand in hand with morality and justice and originates from within rather than from without. If one lives an ethical life and regularly conducts soul searching, he will be imbued with noble spirit and will willingly stand up for what is right.
DETAILED>>Wuwei (non-action) refers to a state of action. Daoism contrasts “action” to “non-action.” “Action” generally means that the rulers impose their will on others or the world without showing any respect for or following the intrinsic nature of things. “Non-action” is the opposite of “action,” and has three main points: 1) through self-control containing the desire to interfere; 2) following the nature of all things and the people; and 3) bringing into play the initiative of all things and people. “Non-action” does not mean not doing anything, but is a wiser way of doing things. Non-action leads to the result of getting everything done.
DETAILED>>
Beiqu (北曲),
the Northern Opera, originated in northern China. It was based on northern folk
songs that were popular in the Northern Song Dynasty or earlier, and its lyrics
were often funny and simple. After the Southern Song Dynasty,
northern China fell under the rule of the Jin and Yuan dynasties. As a result,
songs, dances, and musical elements of Nüzhen, Mongolian and other ethnic groups were widely
incorporated into the Northern Opera, making it a unique form of opera. At the
same time, many writers became interested in the Northern Opera and wrote large
numbers of excellent opera works. Compared
with the lyrics of the literati of the Song period, the Northern Opera was
simple, direct and sincere, and there was
greater freedom in arranging rhythm. The Northern Opera was performed mainly in
the form of short lyrics and cycles. As they dealt with various social themes, operas
performed in this artistic form were referred to as zaju (杂剧 opera of various themes). Writer in
the Yuan Dynasty had low social status, so they wrote a large number of
Northern Opera works to express their emotion and views. They are represented by Guan Hanqing, Ma Zhiyuan (1251?-1321?), Bai Pu (1226-1306?) and Zheng Guangzu (?-1324?), collectively known as the top four Yuan Opera writers.
This refers to not contending for personal interest, power and other things and not involving in various infighting or strife. Excessive desire for material gains and power leads to contention, strife or even violence. Uncontrolled contention results in decline of public moral and breakdown of social order. This is why both Confucianism and Daoism believe in no contention. Confucianism maintains that rules of rites should be observed to restrain people’s desire. People should be guided by moral education, and they should think about how to behave properly rather than shifting blame on others. Thus, a state of no contention can be reached. Daoism maintains that one in power should not interfere in the lives of people so as to encourage them not to engage in contention. According to Daoism, the term not engaging in contention sometimes refers to the attitude of Dao towards everything in the world and that of one in power towards the common people. Dao does not favor contention with anything, so a king should not contend with the people.
DETAILED>>This concept stems from The Book of Changes. “Disappearance and reappearance”signifies the cycle of departure and return pertaining to a journey, but is also extended to the abstract meaning of disappearance and reappearance of things or states of things. In the hexagram context of The Book of Changes, tai (泰) hexagram has qian (乾heaven) at the bottom and kun (坤earth) on top. This hexagram is situated at the junction of qian and kun, the pivotal point where shifts are imminent. Though qian starts from the bottom, it ultimately returns to the top, and while kun begins from the top, it eventually returns to the bottom. The concept that nothing that disappears fails to reappear uncovers the law of transformation for things or states of things.
DETAILED>>This term refers to an effect that allows lasting satisfaction and rewarding in poetry appreciation, which is a particular sense of beauty offered by poetry. In the Southern Dynasties, poetry critic Zhong Rong （？-518？）proposed in “The Critique of Poetry” that in writing five-character-per-line poems, one should pay special attention to the combination of form and content, so that readers could enjoy a poem with inexhaustible delight. Later, nuanced flavor also came to refer to a kind of taste in literary and artistic creation.
DETAILED>>Striving for a society where people are content and in comfort was a foundational principle that the ancient Chinese believed essential to guide the design of state systems, policy formulation, and the governance of a nation. Upholding this precept was considered pivotal for leaders wanting to receive the protective support of tian (天 heaven) – a traditional concept of Chinese governance where tian presides, the ruler mediates, and the people are the central focus. This dynamic is encapsulated in the idea that tian aligns with the will of the people, as depicted in The Book of History, “What the people desire, tian will surely give effect to.” The core responsibility and goal of a leader is to ensure the peace and stability of the people. Yet, going beyond that, nurturing a sense of contentment among the people provides a compass – guiding the path towards fulfilling these responsibilities. This principle guides leaders to prioritize the comfort and needs of the people, while carefully avoiding the imposition of their personal desires on the populace.
DETAILED>>This term means to provide the people with necessities of life and educate them. According to The Book of History, this is what constitutes good governance. To reach this goal, the ruler must manage well the “six necessities and three matters,” the six necessities being metal, wood, water, fire, land, and grain, and the three matters being fostering virtue, proper use of resources, and ensuring people’s livelihood. This concept of governance, which focuses on promoting both economic and ethical progress, is people-centered.
DETAILED>>This term originally referred to intelligent and noble-minded human beings and later came to also cover the writings and articles created by them. These writings and articles were seen as embodying human vision, with literary grace or fine adornment. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties, author of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, pointed out in the “Origin of Dao” section of that book the artistic grace, namely, the outward beauty, exists in all things in the world. “Since even non-human objects have a graceful style, how can humans, intelligent and full of vision, be without beautiful writing?” Liu’s argument is made abundantly clear here, which is that humans are naturally inclined to pursue outward beauty. This is the anthropological basis for the creation of beauty in literary and artistic works as well as literary styles.
Guan (观), namely observation, is a way for individuals to understand things. Generally speaking, it refers to the observer being outside of the thing being observed and using calm observation to examine and understand the existence and operation of that thing. Guan is different from the general meaning of kan (看looking). It implies a more comprehensive and long-term observation of things. Through this kind of observation, people can delve more deeply into the basis of things and the rules they follow.
DETAILED>>One needs to observe a fundamental principle in the entire process of academic and other pursuits. According to Confucianism, to establish oneself, one should gain a good command of knowledge and skills in a wide range of areas and abide by moral principles and norms. Confucius （551-479 BC） himself stressed that there is a fundamental principle running through all such knowledge and skills as well as moral standards. He taught his disciples how to master this fundamental principle so as to meet the requirements for doing things with knowledge and skills acquired. Scholars of later generations have different interpretations about what this fundamental principle is. Zengzi （505-436 BC） believed that it is loyalty and forbearance.
DETAILED>>This concept means to observe and understand things in accordance with their own characteristics. It is a way of observing and understanding things proposed by Shao Yong (1011-1077), a neo-Confucian philosopher of the Song Dynasty. According to him, in the process of observing and understanding things, people often form likes and dislikes for things based on their own subjective consciousness, which affects their understanding of the true nature of things. Therefore, he proposed the idea of observing things based on their own features, believing that people should adopt a calm attitude to remove the influence of subjective consciousness and observe things in accordance with their own characteristics to truly understand them as they are.
DETAILED>>This term means to observe images of phenomena or those of hexagrams. "Images" refer to the appearance of phenomena that can be seen, but have no fixed form. Images of nature, such as the sky or weather, represent the inherent features of humans and events and the laws governing their changes. People in ancient China created various systems of images such as hexagram images to describe images of natural phenomena. "Observing images" calls for closely examining images to understand the laws governing the movement of nature and society.
DETAILED>>This term originally means stupidity, foolishness or madness, and by extension it becomes closely associated with fascination, persistence, weirdness in dealing with people and things. Compared with shrewd, calculating worldly people, people with obsessions tend to be utterly devoted and passionate to the degree of being like fools. They engage in fond love, fond speech and fond behavior, value innocence, true self and individual character, but they seek no fame, wealth or power, and have no fear of worldly judgment. Chi (痴 moha) is also a Buddhist term, which means ignorance or perplexity. It is the benighted state of mind, being unaware of the reality of the world. Buddhism lists ignorance as one of the three poisons, the other two being greed and resentment, from which all (other) evils originate.
DETAILED>>Humans hold a distinctive position in the panoply of life, recognized as the beings possessing the most vibrant spirit. This concept, originating from The Book of History, epitomizes the ancient Chinese perspective on humanity and serves as the philosophical bedrock for notions of human compassion and care in governance. A manifestation of the inherent humanism in Chinese thought, this concept remains relevant today, with contemporary ideas extolling “human-centric” or “people-first” principles drawing from this deep well of wisdom.
DETAILED>>When two things are interdependent, the fall of one will endanger the other. According to the early chronicle Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, when the State of Jin wanted to march through the State of Yu in order to attack Yu’s neighbor, the State of Guo. Gongzhiqi, a minister of Yu, remonstrated with his ruler, saying, “Guo provides a protective shield for Yu. If Guo falls, Yu will soon follow. The relationship between Yu and Guo is like that between lips and teeth.” This shows that since ancient times the Chinese nation has been keen to maintain friendly ties with neighboring countries. It represents pragmatic geopolitical thinking of maintaining amity with close neighbors.
DETAILED>>Every person wants to fulfill his wishes, some of which are justified, while others are not. Trying to meet all these desires can only violate order and morals and even lead to social conflict. This quotation from the chapter “The Record of Music” in The Book of Rites explains the functions of music using as an example “Dawu” (大武great martial dance), a musical performance on the expedition of King Wu of Zhou (?-1043 BC) against King Zhou of Shang (?-1046 BC). King Wu of Zhou won the victory. However, he had waged war not to achieve personal ambition but to overthrow a brutal despot in the interest of the people, to achieve benevolence and righteousness and restore peace and prosperity. Therefore, the performance of “Dawu” fostered public moral standard by encouraging people to be virtuous and reject undesirable behavior.
DETAILED>>Qi (气), or vital force, consists of two opposing aspects. According to the Song- dynasty philosopher Zhang Zai（1020-1077）, everything in the world consists of qi. On the one hand, qi is a whole and one thing；on the other, it consists of pairs of contradictory states, such as the real and the unreal, motion and stillness, concentration and diffusion, and clarity and opacity. Without interaction between the opposite states, the whole cannot exist. Likewise, without the whole, there can be no interaction between the opposite states. Contradictions within the whole constitute the source of changes of qi and all things made of qi.
DETAILED>>This refers to a state of mind Xunzi （313？-238 BC）proposed as a way to master the dao of general morality. He believed that one gets to know dao through the action of one’s heart and mind. But since the human heart and mind are often closed, they can only function normally when one is open-minded, concentrated, and consequently tranquil. Xu (虚), or open-mindedness, prevents prior knowledge from hindering the acquisition of new knowledge. Yi (壹), or concentration, allows one to assimilate knowledge of different categories while keeping them from interfering with each other. Jing (静), or tranquillity, is to keep the false and confusing knowledge from obstructing one’s normal process of contemplation.
DETAILED>>“Opportune time,” which originally referred to the favorable weather at the time of war, now generally refers to various temporal advantages, including weather, timing, opportunity, and so on. “Geographic advantage,” which originally referred to advantageous positions in battle, now refers to generally various favorable spacial conditions, including terrain, position, location, and such. “Unity of the people,” which originally referred to popular support, unity of all ranks, and societal solidarity, now refers in general to advantages in personnel. Ancient Chinese believed that these three were the most important factors for success. Among them, “unity of the people” is decisive because “opportune time is not as valuable as geographic advantage, and geographic advantage is not as valuable as unity of the people.” The saying reflects the three fundamental dimensions of a problem the Chinese people take into consideration: time (opportunity), space (environment), and people. It reflects the basic notion of putting people at the center of everything.
This concept is advocated by the Mohist school active during the Warring States Period. Mozi (468?-376 BC) believes a ruler should promote all that is beneficial, and eliminate all that is harmful. He stood in opposition to the Confucian idea of ruling a country through ritual propriety, and held that the ruling class’ abandonment to pleasure and neglect of state business was bringing great harm to society. According to him, the manufacture of musical instruments involves extracting much wealth from ordinary people, yet instruments thus produced cannot be used by them or serve to relieve their suffering. Music itself also hinders normal productive activities, as once people become obsessed with music, they may ignore their proper duties. Therefore, Mozi proposed that music should be banned. From the perspective of societal benefit, he opposed the Confucian idea of educating the masses through music. This argument is not without merit, but shows an element of over-correction, which manifests a narrow utilitarian view of arts and literature.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a classical Chinese literary style generally known as “parallel prose,” largely composed of couplets of phrases with similar structure. Monosyllabic Chinese words, each represented with a single written character, are fairly easy to arrange in pairs of expressions with semantic symmetry and prosodic harmony. The ornate parallel style highlights the beauty of the form of the language without neglecting the harmony between form and content; and it is employed to produce fine works of utmost beauty, with form and content reinforcing each other.
DETAILED>>Outside the Four Seas refers to the territory outside China, foreign lands, or remote areas. The ancient Chinese thought that China’s territory was surrounded by the Four Seas (the East, West, North, and South seas). Therefore, places outside China were outside the Four Seas. It reflected the ancient Chinese belief that the seas were the natural boundary of a country. It also suggested that the ancient Chinese were on the one hand self-focused and on the other open-minded, longing to explore the unknown world outside the Four Seas.
DETAILED>>Overcoming oneself means to conquer and control oneself. Everybody has his strengths and weaknesses, and he may succeed or fail in what he does. One’s strengths and skills bring success, whereas one’s weaknesses lead to failure. Therefore, one needs to make constant efforts to improve oneself, overcome one’s weaknesses, transcend one’s limitations, and eventually become a truly capable person. This is not only a prerequisite for overcoming particular difficulties and defeating enemies, but also a lifetime pursuit for a better self. This is true for a person and for a country as well. The aspiration embodied therein is similar to what is expressed in the term “strive continuously to strengthen oneself.”
DETAILED>>The Tang-dynasty poet Jia Dao (779-843) found composing his poems quite a painful process, and his creative method was to chant his verses repeatedly to get the right line. Those engaged in “painstaking versification” tended to be exhausted and frustrated, and their poetry is regarded as a way of relief for their sorrows. Sometimes, the term also refers to a perfectionist attitude to literary and artistic creation.
DETAILED>>Dan (丹 cinnabar) and qing (青 cyan) were two colors frequently applied in traditional Chinese painting. Cinnabar is red and cyan is bluish green. In early times, Chinese paintings often used minerals such as cinnabar and cyan to draw lines or fill in colors. Hence the term danqing (丹青) made from the combination of dan and qing could stand for painting in general. Representative works of this kind included silk paintings unearthed at Tomb No.1 of Mawangdui of the Han Dynasty as well as the Dunhuang frescoes of the Northern Wei period and the Sui and Tang dynasties. Later, colors made from cinnabar and cyan were gradually replaced by ink and wash. Partly because of their bright, contrastive colors, and partly because mineral colors do not deteriorate appreciably over time, people used red-character books to record merits and bluish-green-character books to record historical events. Historians often use danqing to refer to a man’s outstanding, indelible work that deserves to be put down in history.
DETAILED>>This expression highlights the connection between poetry and painting in their ability to create aesthetic imagery. This idea was first put forward by Su Shi（1037-1101）in his “Notes to Wang Wei’s Painting 'Mist and Rain over Lantian'.” Painting creates an aesthetic effect through images presented. Poetry, on the other hand, is a language art, which creates an aesthetic effect through the use of words. The former is an art that has shape but no sound, while the latter is an art that has sound but no shape. The term means that good poetry and painting should be fused so that a spontaneous and novel aesthetic realm can be created by a “picturesque poem” or a “poetic picture.” This idea of Su Shi’s had a far-reaching influence on the subsequent development of literature and painting in China.
DETAILED>>The term comes from a story in Hanfeizi. In the story, mao (矛) is a spear that is said to be able to pierce anything; dun (盾) is a shield that is said to be able to be pierced by nothing. Mao and dun are a paradox to each other, so a person cannot affirm both propositions at the same time. Later, the term came to mean “contradiction,” or “inconsistency between speech and action.”
DETAILED>>Travelers heading down different paths do not plan together how to travel. Originally, the saying meant people with different views and beliefs do not seek to work together. Dao (道 way), which originally referred to “road,” is extended to include opinions, beliefs, interests, viewpoints, and guiding principles. Mou (谋 plan), is extended to mean cooperation and collaboration. In order to work together, it is most important to agree upon a set of common goals and principles. Without them, parties cannot collaborate successfully. On the other hand, collaboration should not sacrifice principles. Upholding principles does not mean rejecting cooperation. Rather, it means rejecting unprincipled deal-making. This is true of cooperation among individuals and among countries as well.
DETAILED>>Contained in the Guliang's Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, this concept embodies the ancient Chinese tradition of history compilation and historiography, and is an important historical methodology. This concept means that the research and writing of history should be based on historical documents. One needs to take an objective and prudent attitude towards different accounts in historical documents and given by different historians. One should respect historical data and refrain from making arbitrary judgments. Judgments should not be made until verification can be made; where verification cannot be made, disagreements should be allowed. This methodology is a concrete manifestation of the Chinese concept of "factual history" and expresses a well-balanced attitude of historiography.
DETAILED>>This concept is meant to remind people of the need to learn from past experience and make it a guide for the future. In ancient China great importance was attached to writing history and thus historiography experienced great progress. It was so designed as to review the successes and failures of previous dynasties and recount the good and evil in historical figures, especially sovereigns and officials, in order to provide a warning or a guide for the future.
DETAILED>>The peach and plum trees themselves are silent, but their lovely flowers and sweet fruits attract many people, creating a path leading to them. The analogy here is that a person of integrity who does good deeds may say very little but will be liked, respected and trusted. The saying shows that Chinese have always valued uprightness and good deeds.
DETAILED>>Confucian classics penetrate the depths of the human mind. A classic becomes one because it serves as an example in many ways. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties discussed the characteristics and achievements of the Confucian classics in the chapter “Use of Confucian Classics as Guidance.” According to Liu, the classics contained Confucian thought and played a very important role in moral education. He believed that the Confucian classics had a profound understanding of human nature, delving into the subtle and innerpsychological activities of human beings and capturing the essence of writings. This view creatively captures the depth of the human mind through writing, and set the trend for later generation scholars to give expression to the human mind through writing.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to poems whose content and emotion are both profound and pensive, with rising and falling tones. The concept is used by later generations to summarize the characteristics of the poetry of Du Fu ( 712-770 ), a poet from the Tang Dynasty. Du Fu’s long held concerns for the country and its people made him feel deeply pensive, which gives his work a wide ranging scope and emotional depth. And his poems give readers the impression of being inhibited and suppressed, pausing, and then all of a sudden, bursting forth. Du Fu’s poems have the distinctive artistic feature of “pensiveness and cadence” in terms of expression of content, emotion and rhythmic form.
DETAILED>>This term means that the people are the essence of the state or the foundation upon which it stands. Only when people live and work in peace and contentment can the state be peaceful and stable. This saying, which first
People should be able to promote dao (the Way) rather than use dao to promote themselves. This is a well-known statement by the great ancient thinker Confucius (551-479BC). Dao refers to the righteous principles, i.e., the fundamental principles and universal rules (including morals and justice) that are observed by everything in the world including human beings. Human beings should take the responsibility to promote Dao, but not use dao as a means to gain personal visibility. The purpose of the statement is to establish the centrality of human beings. Human beings should not only respect dao, but also respect the agents that promote dao – human beings themselves.
DETAILED>>The term, a shortened version of ren tong ci xin, xin tong ci li (人同此心，心同此理), was first proposed by Lu Jiuyuan (1139-1193). Xinxue (心学), the Neo-Confucian philosophy of Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming (1472-1529)，teaches that the innate knowledge of the human mind and the principles of the universe are in liaison, that truth transcends time and space, that the mind and the dao are universal for all mankind. All human beings, past and present, east or west, have a common innate knowing of truth and morality, and this is the basis for a common human identity. As Western and Chinese cultures came into increasing contact after the Ming and Qing dynasties, this expression was an attempt to explain that, even though East and West differed in their academic cultures and much of the new knowledge differed in form from Chinese epistemology, their fundamental thinking could be reconciled.
DETAILED>>In the Spring and Autumn Period, Wu and Yue were neighboring states which were hostile to each other. Wu and Yue people being in the same boat is a metaphor for overcoming old grievances to face common danger. When people from these two states were crossing a river in the same boat and encountered a storm, they had to work together to save themselves; in that sense, they were just like the left and right hands of the same person. The story implies that there is no absolute and perpetual enmity or friendship. Under certain circumstances, an enemy can be turned into a friend.
DETAILED>>People with no covetous desires stand upright and maintain integrity. Yu (欲) refers to all sorts of selfish and covetous desires. Gang (刚) means fairness, justice, integrity, and forcefulness. Wuyu (无欲) does not mean that people should not have any desires, but rather, people should not harbor any selfish or covetous desires. The term tells us a basic principle for people to follow in conducting themselves, and especially for officials in handling office affairs, that is, no temptations should ever sway anyone. One must always conduct oneself properly without seeking to gratify personal interests； one must always seek compliance without seeking fame or wealth； and one must never harbor any greed. This is the way for one to stand upright, firm, and fearless. Like towering cliffs, one may stand tall and indestructible.
DETAILED>>The country will be harmed if the people harbor grievances. “People’s grievances” refers to dissatisfaction or even anger among the people over government policies. Broad dissatisfaction or anger among the general public indicates there may be problems of one sort or another in the country’s governance. If the people cannot live or work in a settled environment, social disorder can easily arise and lead to uprisings, which would not be good for the country. Under such circumstances, those in power or administration must make timely policy adjustments and work hard to ease the people’s feelings, so as to ensure stable and durable governance. This is of the same line of thought as the saying “a country with no resentful people is called a strong country,” and it can also be regarded as an example of the concept of “people first.”
DETAILED>>This term describes a poetic work which has attained the sublime state of natural appeal. First put forward by late-Tang poet Sikong Tu (837-908) as a term of poetry discourse, it originates from the nature-revering aesthetic of Daoism and embodies a fundamental tenet of the theory of Chinese art. Sikong Tu championed the aesthetic principle of perfect naturalness and listed it as one of the twenty-four styles of poetry. Perfect naturalness is an ideal natural state of beauty created by poets, and also a conscious exertion sought by them in poetic composition. This notion stands in contrast to the imitation theory in Western aesthetic tradition. It seeks to achieve oneness between the poet and all lives in the universe, and at the same time maintains the individual creativity above all other lives.
DETAILED>>The term stands for perpetual change. According to The Book of Changes, shengsheng (生生) can be understood at two levels. First, in regard to the existence of all things, it is the interaction of yin and yang that drives the process of the endless cycle of birth, rebirth, and change of heaven, earth, and all things. This process is a fundamental attribute of the universe, and the source of ethical behavior. Second, as a term in divination, it refers to the alternation of yin and yang lines and the fact that all elements in the symbol system of The Book of Changes are in a perpetual state of change.
DETAILED>>A person of integrity is one with the ideal character championed by the ancient Chinese. A person of integrity practices and observes all the ethical rules and standards in life, and his behavior is revered as the model for such a way of life. However, different schools of thought have different understanding as to what qualities a person of integrity should have. To Confucian scholars, a person of integrity practices moral virtues such as benevolence and righteousness and is considered competent for being an official. Mohists, however, believe a person of integrity should see that those under his governance practice universal love as their fundamental moral guidance. Still others, such as Daoist scholars, argue that exalting a person of integrity would lead to unnecessary controversy and would thus be detrimental to governance.
DETAILED>>The term was originally used to indicate a person’s social status, usually referring to the rulers’ subjects or those low in social ranking. Later generations also used the term to indicate one’s moral standard in a disapproving way. Those of base character were called petty men as opposed to men of virtue. A petty man only pursues his personal interests or profits, even by violating morality and righteousness; and such people have no understanding of or regard for dao.
DETAILED>>Fenghuang (凤凰 phoenix) is a legendary divine bird and the king of all birds. Feng (凤) is male, and huang (凰) is female. Beginning in the Qin and Han dynasties, emperors were referred to as long (龙dragons) while queens and royal concubines were called feng (凤phoenix), so fenghuang came to mean women only. The description of the phoenix as a species and its image changed over the centuries, eventually making it a divine bird with both bird and animal features. For example, in Guo Pu’s Commentaries on Er Ya, the phoenix is described as “a colorful six-chi-tall bird with a chicken’s head, a swallow’s jaw, a snake’s neck, a turtle’s back, and a fish’s tail.” In the very early days, the phoenix was probably just a primitive tribal totem. Later, however, it became a symbol of peace and prosperity. It was also used to bless marriages, as it represents nobleness, harmony, auspiciousness, and happiness. Like the dragon, the phoenix is an important cultural symbol of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>This term refers broadly to the appearances and patterns of everything in nature. It was originally used to describe the colors of animal furs; later it became associated with the colors of all physical objects, such as the splendor of scenery and landscape. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties discussed at some length the relationship between natural features and literary creation in his book The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. In his view, "Literary writing is created only when the writer's innermost emotion is stirred up by external things." That is, as objects of aesthetic appreciation, natural features can inspire one to turn his emotions into words.
When a person’s physical form has fully developed, he will develop spiritual activity accordingly. Here “form” refers to the physical form of a human being, and “spiritual” refers to various mental activities, including emotions and consciousness. Xunzi (313-238 BC) pointed out that a person’s physical form and spirit, just like everything else, develop naturally in the course of the movement of the way of heaven. Spirit is born in the wake of physical formation of a human being. Full physical form is a prerequisite to the birth of spirit. A person’s spirit exists within his physical form.
DETAILED>>Originally published in the Jin (金) Dynasty as a rhyming book for the imperial examinations, this was the basis for the rhymes of poems written by literati at that time and afterwards. It was first engraved and published in Pingshui (now Linfen, Shanxi Province), hence the name. (Another theory is that it was named after one of the publishers, Liu Yuan, who was born in Pingshui, Jiangbei, now unknown). Rhyme is an important artistic feature of poetry. From ancient times to the Sui Dynasty, poetry rhymed according to the natural laws of rhyme. During the Sui Dynasty, when China was reunified and northern and southern cultures were fused, Lu Fayan (562-?) and others compiled a book called Qieyun (qie is a traditional method of marking pronunciation, yun means “rhyming system”), which represented a compromise between the northern and southern official dialects. In the Tang Dynasty, poetry was among the subjects of the imperial examinations, and books like Qieyun became the natural rhyme standard for poetry. In the Northern Song Dynasty, The Song Dynasty’s Enlarged Edition of Qieyun and Simplifed Rhymes of the Ministry of Rites were compiled and issued as official rhymes on the basis of Qieyun. A total of 206 rhymes were set out in these two works, though only about a hundred were actually used in the poetry of the Tang and Song dynasties. During the Jin Dynasty when a system of recruiting officials on the merit of their poetry was used, its official rhymes were based on the rhyme books of the Northern Song Dynasty, with some amalgamations adopted. In this context, during the coexistence of the Jin and Southern Song dynasties, Wang Wenyu of the Jin Dynasty published his Newly Revised Simplified Rhymes of the Ministry of Rites with 106 rhymes, and Liu Yuan of the Song Dynasty published his New Rhymes of the Ministry of Rites in the Renzi Year (1252) with 107 rhymes. The rhymes of these two books were essentially the same. Although the original books are now lost, the rhyming system established by them, namely pingshui rhyming system, is a direct inheritance from the Tang and Northern Song dynasties, and is more concise and convenient to learn and use. It became an important basis for rhyming poems written in the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties and remains useful even today.
DETAILED>>Literally, this term means pivot of Dao. It first appeared in Zhuangzi written by the ancient Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC). It is pointed out in Zhuangzi that people tend to look at others from their own perspectives or standards, but such different views or standards often give rise to confrontation and disagreement. Therefore, Zhuangzi maintained that people should transcend their own views and go beyond their own standards when viewing other people or things, thus avoiding or resolving conflicts or disputes. By taking this key approach to others and things, one can gain a true understanding of Dao.
DETAILED>>Plain line drawing is one of the traditional Chinese styles of artistic presentation. It features the contours of images sketched in black ink lines. This style of painting is mostly used in painting human figures and flowers. Although not much ink is applied, this technique can achieve a very lively effect. Plain line drawing originated from the plain drawing of earlier times； through variations in lines’ length, thickness, pressure, and changes in trajectory, the artist can portray the texture and motion of images. Plain line drawing was prevalent from the Jin Dynasty through the Tang Dynasty. During the Song Dynasty, it formed a distinctive style of its own. Gu Kaizhi（345？-409）of the Jin Dynasty, Li Gonglin（1049-1106）of the Northern Song Dynasty, and Zhao Mengfu（1254-1322）of the Yuan Dynasty specialized in painting lines of perfectly even width like iron wire, while Wu Daozi of the Tang Dynasty and Ma Hezhi of the Southern Song Dynasty were renowned for their skill in drawing thick, wavy lines resembling orchid leaves. Plain drawing is also a very important style of expression in narrative literature. In this context it refers to a simple and concise style of writing, without embellishment, so as to produce fresh, lively images. In classic novels such as Outlaws of the Marsh or Romance of the Three Kingdoms, one finds abundant instances of a plain drawing style of writing.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a playful approach to the composition of prose. Famed Tang Dynasty writer Han Yu (768-824), for example, wrote his “Biography of Mao Ying” and “Bidding Farewell to Poverty,” both dealing with serious themes, in a witty way. Playful writing thus became a style of classic Chinese prose. It stressed the entertaining, game-like function of literature and playfully explored serious themes. Thus, a writer often personified a non-human object or conjured up a situation to satirize human behavior and express personal feelings. This playful approach to writing became highly controversial, as it stood in contrast to the established Confucian notion that literature should be a vehicle of cultivating moral values. Some scholars like Pei Du (765-839) and Zhang Ji (767?-830?) opposed this style of writing, but Liu Zongyuan (773-819) wrote an essay in support of Han Yu, arguing that playful writing had intellectual value and aesthetic significance, and it was in fact not that different from the tradition of regarding literature as a vehicle of cultivating moral values. These two views were mutually complementary, each with its theoretical value. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan broke new ground with their literary theory and works, enriched the styles of classic Chinese literature with playful writing, and greatly influenced essay writing of later generations.
DETAILED>>Plump beauty is a style prevalent in ancient Chinese literature and art. "Plump" here suggests abundance, richness and fullness. In calligraphic aesthetics, it refers to a state of chubbiness, maturity and lushness. When used in poetic creation, "plump" is associated with a poem's richness in nuance and enduring appeal. However, plump beauty would not work alone; it has to be combined with or complemented by leanness. Only thus can the dual character of ancient Chinese poetry and artistic aesthetics be fully expressed. The Northern Song writer Su Shi (1037-1101) highly lauded the artistic features of Tao Yuanming's (365 or 372 or 376-427) poetry by saying that "it is magnificently beautiful and richly varied under the surface of simplicity."
DETAILED>>Poetic drama of the Song Dynasty refers to a combination of comic shows, song and dance, and variety shows. It is an early form of traditional Chinese drama based on Canjunxi (comic dialogical plays of the Tang Dynasty) and drawing elements from song and dance plus other forms of folk art. It is mainly jocular and satirical. Its performance is divided into two sections. The first is a warming-up show whereas the second section is the “real thing.” Sometimes, skits will be added to a regular show to enhance the fun. Each poetic drama has four or five characters, with one of them being the main singer who narrates events by singing major arias while the others do the spoken parts, throw in impromptu remarks for comic relief, or simply sing and dance. Dramatic performances were very popular in the Northern Song Period, especially in Kaifeng and Luoyang. Throughout the Northern and Southern Song dynasties, poetic drama kept on growing and reached a new height, further dividing roles, varying postures and making plots more intricate. Poetic drama of the Song Dynasty predated that of the Yuan Dynasty. Its artistic forms and techniques directly influenced later forms of drama.
Poetic songs were developed from the officially collected folk ballads and songs of the Han, Wei and the Six Dynasties. They are characterized by great length, bold expression of feeling, diverse sentence patterns and laxity of the requirements of metrical forms. They followed the classic forms of five characters to a line, seven characters to a line and a mixed pattern in a flexible manner. This genre was established by Southern Dynasty poet Bao Zhao(414?-466) who drew inspiration from folk songs. Tang Dynasty poets Li Bai(701-762) and Bai Juyi(772-846) also wrote poems in such style.
DETAILED>>This term originally referred to the absence of a universally accepted interpretation or explanation of The Book of Songs. It was first put forward by the great Han Dynasty Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu (179-104 BC). Later, it came to be used as a general term in literary criticism, which suggests that as the result of the changing historical conditions and different life experiences of readers there bound to be varied interpretations or explanations of the same literary work. The idea that poetry defies any attempt at fixed interpretation derived from the traditions of the Spring and Autumn Period, when poetic lines were recited to express one’s view, stance, or emotion. To justify themselves politically or diplomatically, politicians at the time would quote from The Book of Songs, yet without bothering to find out the exact meaning of the quotes, sometimes even distorting their meaning. Confucian scholars of the Han Dynasty interpreted The Book of Songs in several different ways due to different academic orientations. Dong Zhongshu raised this idea to provide theoretical support for such divergence. As a view of literary theory, it is concerned with different readers’ divergent interpretations of a text and its aesthetic values. This view argues that as poetic terms are suggestive, ambiguous, and intricate, readers should not settle for a superficial understanding of a poem. Instead, they should delve into the poet’s heart and develop their own understanding, interpretation, and insight of his poem. The argument that there is no fixed interpretation of poems is valid, because it shows that poetic language can be ambiguous in meaning and that interpretations can therefore vary. However, this does not mean that one should interpret a poem too freely.
A poem expresses aspirations in one’s heart. Zhi (志) here means the author’s aspirations, emotions, and thoughts. The concept of “poetry expressing aspirations,” first seen in the Confucian classic The Book of History, was hailed by Zhu Ziqing as the “manifesto” of Chinese poetry. Enriched by poetry critics through the generations, it was later established as a basic concept in Chinese literary criticism.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the poetic creation and achievements during the Kaiyuan (713–742) and Tianbao (742–756) reign periods of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, as compared with poetic writing in the early Tang, mid-Tang, andlate Tang periods. This period, marked by good governance, prosperity, and stability, was a golden era for the great Tang empire before it was disrupted by the An Lushan and Shi Siming Rebellion. There was cultural infusion between the north and south, and travels to and from the outside world were frequent. All this made it possible for artistic creation to blossom. Of all the four periods of poetic creation, i.e., the early Tang, the prime Tang, the mid-Tang, and the late Tang, the prime Tang was the shortest, but its artistic attainment was most remarkable. This period produced legendary poet Li Bai (701-762) and poetic genius Du Fu (712-770) as well as a galaxy of outstanding poets such as Zhang Yue (667-731), Zhang Ruoxu, Zhang Jiuling (673 or 678-740), Meng Haoran (689-740), Wang Wei (701?-761), Gao Shi (700?-765), Cen Shen (715-770), Wang Changling (?-756?), Wang Zhihuan (688-742), Cui Hao (?-754), Li Qi (?-753?)，and Wang Han. These poets extolled natural scenery, expressed noble aspirations, and depicted real life. Their writing style was both vigorous and unrestrained. They were broad in vision and were adept at using fresh, natural language, and their poems were full of power, vigor and an enterprising spirit. Their poems represented the highest attainment in classical Chinese poetry. This period also saw the thriving of the natural landscape school and the frontier school in poetry writing.
DETAILED>>Poetry on history refers to poems written to convey a poet’s sentiments by reflecting on historical events or historical figures. A poem on history touched on historical events and expressed the poet’s historical insight as well as his emotional attachment to history. Such poems recounted, relived, revived, interpreted, or chanted about history. Some poets used historical figures or events as titles for such poems.
DETAILED>>Poems originate from the poet’s heart-felt feelings. Lu Ji （261-303）of the Western Jin Dynasty said in “The Art of Writing” that a poet must have a surge of feeling deep in his heart before he could create a poem. This view, complementing the concept of “poetry expressing aspirations,” stresses the lyrical and aesthetic nature of literary works and echoes the evolution of literary tastes during the Wei and Jin dynasties. “Poetry springing from emotions” represents another viewpoint on the nature of poetry and literature in ancient China.
DETAILED>>This means to work more effectively by extensively drawing on ideas and wisdom from many people. Proposed by Zhuge Liang (181-234) during the period of the Three Kingdoms, it meant that a leader should offer many opportunities for others to speak up and listen humbly to all opinions, especially those which differ from his own. He should then consider all aspects of the issue and make a correct decision. He absolutely must not think himself infallible and acts arbitrarily. Pulling wisdom of the people will keep everyone motivated and ensure success.
DETAILED>>The expression means that a person in poverty does not need to learn how to be frugal because he is naturally frugal, and a person with a humble background does not need to learn how to be respectful because he is naturally respectful. This Chinese proverb does not mean to discourage people from learning those two virtues universally held in high esteem. Rather, it is meant to shed light on an essential and philosophical principle that a person’s character, in the final analysis, is not born nor randomly formed, but is determined by one’s circumstances. In other words, “a person is the product of his environment.”
DETAILED>>Dafu (大赋), a particular style of long compositions of the Han Dynasty, portrays the landscape of the capital city and the countryside to extol the aesthetic appeal of its brightness, splendor and grandeur. Coined in The Rites of Zhou, the concept tiguo jingye (体国经野) is an intertextual structure, and it means to set apart the capital and the countryside, decide the locations of the palaces and the temples, and measure the boundaries of the land. The dafu works mostly describe the prosperity of the capital, the majesty of the palaces, the wonders of the gardens, and the glory of hunting events. Through the descriptions and narratives of magnificent scenes and objects, they celebrate the Han Dynasty’s style and prestige, good governance and strength. Therefore Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties used this concept in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons to summarize the outstanding features of dafu works, revealing the deep-seated reasons that brought them into being, and setting out their great significance.
DETAILED>>Posthumous titles were often conferred upon emperors, nobles, ministers, and other prominent officials with a high political and social status. The titles were intended to serve as a summation of the life of their holders. They mostly came in three forms: commendatory, derogatory, or sympathetic. They were an important part of institutional culture in Chinese traditional politics. The titles were designed to guide future generations and promote political and social stability.
DETAILED>>The concept of poverty and prosperity refers to two different situations individuals may experience in life. It encompasses various aspects of one’s life, including material wealth, social status, and reputation. Generally, people aspire to achieve prosperity and avoid being in a state of poverty. At the same time, people also place great value on whether individuals can show resilience and adhere to moral principles when facing adversity.
DETAILED>>This concept is first found on the bamboo slips unearthed from a tomb of the State of Chu at Guodian Village, Hubei Province. According to the belief that the mandate of heaven or the way of heaven rewards the good and punishes the evil, virtuous individuals will be rewarded and become prosperous, while those who act immorally will be punished and live in poverty. The concept breaks the necessary connection between one’s moral character and their state of poverty or prosperity, indicating that one’s state of poverty or prosperity is influenced by their circumstances. At the same time, the limitations of circumstances should not affect a person’s moral cultivation, as moral cultivation should not aim for prosperity.
DETAILED>>A state which takes good care of its people is one with true power. A ruler will be trusted and supported by the people, and the state under such a ruler will be a solid stronghold only when the policies and measures made and implemented meet the people’s requirements and represent the people’s fundamental interests. This is a new theme derived from the concept of “loving the people,” which is the fundamental driving force of a state’s becoming strong and prosperous. It is also an extension and development of the concepts of “the people are the foundation of a state,” and “a benevolent person loves others.”
Masters of landscape painting are able to depict natural scenery which has vast breadth and distance on an inches-wide scroll. The artist does not just copy a scenery, but rather creates a work of art which integrates his artistic accomplishments and displays his heart and mind. The artist omits superfluous details and brings close a distant landscape with a broad perspective. This idea also applies to poetry criticism. Its most important element is “power,” which means that general layout and core message give poems, paintings, and other works of art a dramatic effect, expressiveness and appeal, rather than paying excessive attention to details. To achieve this, artists should not merely duplicate or imitate a landscape; they should personally experience it, expand their horizons, feel the natural wonders and transcend worldly concerns.
This term, which literally means power and splendor, refers to a natural and powerful artistic style and aesthetic taste. In Daoist terms, the Way features the great and vast power of nature, hence the term. Powerfulness is not deliberately created by the author. Rather, it is a majestic, forceful style of artistic expression flowing naturally from the inner strength built up in a work of art itself. Powerfulness cannot be achieved artificially; it has a great deal to do with an author’s disposition and self-cultivation. Such a work has a powerful style in terms of wording, syntactic structure or presentation of imagery. Giving full expression to the author’s emotions, it creates a powerful artistic impact.
DETAILED>>Xi (习) means to develop a good command of something through frequent practices. Repeated practice is an important part of learning, which is necessary for acquiring knowledge and skills. In Confucian thinking, xi refers mostly to regular observance of ethics, rites and moral requirements. This will develop habits of speech and action required of a person of moral integrity.
This term first appeared in The Analects. Gong (躬) means in person and xing (行) refers to the cultivation of morals. According to Confucianism, one should cultivate his morals in everyday life to develop personal integrity. This term embodies the view that knowledge and action should be closely integrated with each other. Confucianism is against those who fail to observe moral principles they preach themselves, emphasizing that people should always follow moral principles in their daily lives.
DETAILED>>This term means to advocate stone-borne calligraphy while deprecating hand-copied script in mere imitation of famed calligraphers. It reflects a calligraphic trend toward natural variation and individual creativity. Ruan Yuan (1764-1849), for example, opposed the age-old tradition of lauding master calligraphers Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi alone and honoring the practice of learning calligraphy only by copying an exemplary sample preserved on paper. He held that stone-borne calligraphy, like hand-copied script, had its own distinctive merits. Bao Shichen (1775-1855) elaborated further on the features of stone-borne calligraphy, stating that it made up for the inadequacies in paper-borne calligraphy. Kang Youwei (1858-1927) saw the loss of original form when paper-borne copies passed from hand to hand over generations as justification for favoring stone-borne calligraphy. Calligraphy on stones, he maintained, could show its change and variety over different historical periods. He said that commentaries on calligraphy "helped to highlight the ways of the sages, urge the renewal of monarchical institutions, gain insight into human nature, and explore the laws of change for all things in the universe." Calligraphy should inspire a re-examination of history on the basis of present-day conditions and prepare people for drastic reform.
DETAILED>>The two-tier local government administration of prefectures and counties took shape between the late Spring and Autumn Period and the early Qin Dynasty. Back in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, some kingdoms established county or prefectural administration in newly annexed areas, but the two were separate jurisdictions. When the First Emperor of Qin(259-210 BC) unified China, he abolished the enfeoffment system that was based on consanguinity and established a vertical government system of prefectures and counties under which the central government exercised jurisdiction over prefectures, and prefectures exercised jurisdiction over counties. Heads of prefectures and counties were appointed and dismissed by the central government. The Chinese word for prefect was shou (守，changed to taishou 太守 by Emperor Jing of the Han Dynasty); and a county head was called ling（令） or zhang（长）. In the early Han Dynasty, both enfeoffment and the prefecture-county system were practiced. Gradually the latter prevailed. The prefecture-county system strengthened autocratic-imperial rule and was a key component of the centralized power system.
Qixiang (气象), originally a term about the general state of scenery and physical objects in nature, also refers to the prevailing features of a society in a given period of time. This description carries the meaning of great appeal and impact as well as scenery and objects. When applied to art, it refers to the overall style and appeal in a piece of artistic work. It connotes grandeur and magnificence, and is often used in conjunction with such words as “heroic,” “immense,” and “sublime.” Literary critics of the Tang Dynasty began using the term to comment on the style and features of a poem or an essay. Since the Song Dynasty, the term has become an important concept in literary criticism, used to critique the style and artistic flair of poems, essays, calligraphy, and paintings. It is often thought to reflect the prevailing features in literature and art of a particular period. For instance, during the prime of the Tang Dynasty, the term referred to the appeal of both poems and the poets who wrote them.
DETAILED>>This is a principle for the application of rules and norms, first cited in The Great Learning, a section ofThe Book of Rites. The Book advocates the use of xieju by administrators in governance when dealing with people. Xie (絜) originally meant a string used for measuring the circumference of an object, while ju (矩) was a square used for drawing squares, rectangles or right angles. The combination of the two characters refers to rules and norms which must be upheld. In this case, the rules and norms require an administrator to put himself in others’ position and judge their requests based on what he himself would want or not want, to not force upon others what he would reject, and to make this a norm in his governance and his work.
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"Private name" is a category used in the Mohist School for naming specific things. The Mohists stressed the importance of properly naming things in different ways to reflect their real nature. They had three ways to name things: unrestricted, classified, and private. “Private name” refers to the proper name for something, such as a person’s name that is used to refer to a specific individual.
Proactive and prudent were used by Confucius（551-479 BC） to refer to two opposing attitudes and styles of behavior. Proactive persons tend to be radical and won’t make any compromise in upholding moral principles and justice. Prudent persons, on the other hand, tend to be cautious and ready to make compromise but without sacrificing moral integrity. Confucius believed that the ideal conduct in life is keeping to the mean, neither going too far nor falling short. While proactive and prudent may be extreme to some extent, both have their own advantages as both adhere to moral principles and justice.
DETAILED>>An author should produce a piece of writing to express emotions and not produce emotions for a piece of writing. In the chapter “Emotions and Rhetoric,”Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), the Southern Dynasties author of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, points out two contrasting attitudes towards literary creation. Some writers, who inherit the realistic tradition of The Book of Songs, “draw inspiration from grief and joy in real life and express feelings based on real events.” Their writings faithfully reflect reality and accurately depict what is on their mind. Others, who intend to fish for fame and compliments, produce emotions out of nothing to cater to popular aesthetic criteria. Liu strongly advocates the former attitude and argues against the latter. It is because writings based on real emotions, which include both personal and empathetic feelings, are key to the organic development of literature, while emotions produced for writing, hollow and subject to material benefits, reduce the realistic significance and aesthetic value of literary works. For writers, real experiences in life and perception of the true nature and feelings of humanity can help correct the defect of “manufactured emotions” and achieve an almost natural effect of art in writings, even if they are elaborately designed.
DETAILED>>The pre-Qin Dynasty Confucian scholars contrasted reasoning with rhetoric and advocated that rhetoric should be based on reasoning. They argued that an article not based on reasoning would not be a good one. In the Southern Dynasties, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) continued to uphold this view, further arguing that persuasive reasoning constituted the substance of a piece of writing and that a graceful literary style enhanced its appeal. He believed that Confucian scholars produced reasoning-based writings with graceful literary style, thus turning these fine writings into classics.
DETAILED>>The expression was first used in poetry criticism to mean that a poem fully met poetic stylistic standards. It later became an important term in Chinese classical operatic theory. It has two meanings. One is that the language used by a character in a play is simple, natural, easy to understand, and appropriate for the character. The other is that characters and plot of the play are true to life with a strong artistic attraction. In Ming-dynasty operatic theory, “professionalism” and “being true to life” are often used together to describe outstanding opera works.
DETAILED>>The expression comes from Mozi and The Analects. Followers of Mozi and Confucian ethics admired those who could keep their promises and whose actions were resolute. They believed speech and action should match. However, Confucius (551-479BC) and Mencius (372?-289BC) took this further to apply to rulers who, only by being as good as their words and trustworthy in their speech, could earn the confidence and support of their subjects who, in turn, would be truthful with them. For Confucius, this principle, rather than be followed too rigidly, should in practice be applied on the basis of what is ethical under specific conditions and after careful weighing the pros and cons. Later, the expression came to refer to honest speech and firm action, keeping one’s word, and also “suit action to word.”
DETAILED>>Promote what is beneficial to the people; eliminate what is not. Those in power should place the interests of the public at the forefront of their concerns, focusing on what is beneficial and eliminating what is harmful. In ancient China, Confucians, Mohists, and Legalists all held that this was the fundamental duty of a ruler, and determined whether or not there was public support and hence political legitimacy for his rule. Today “govern for the people” has its roots in this concept.
DETAILED>>Governance based on morality, kindness and fairness is first proposed by Mozi (468?-376 BC), in contrast to lizheng (力政) meaning governance based on violence and coercion. This concept follows the “principles of the highest authority,” which in practice should be manifested by the big not bullying the small, the strong not crushing the weak, equal treatment for all regardless of wealth, status or intelligence, so all should coexist amicably. This is similar to the Confucian concept of the “kingly way,” or benevolent governance. From ancient times to the present, Chinese culture has advocated governance with virtue and justice, and abhorred rule by violence and coercion.
DETAILED>>It is originally a term in ancient Chinese music. It has two meanings： 1) The refined and pure music encouraged by Confucian and official circles; sometimes it was also a general term for the five notes of ancient music gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu. 2) Examples of the finest poems and songs. Confucian scholars believed that the content and music of The Book of Songs were the best and most refined, and thus were set as the models for zhengsheng, or the finest poetry. Gao Bing(1350-1423) of the Ming Dynasty named his collection of carefully selected Tang poems A Selection of Finest Tang Poems in an effort to present the finest and purest examples of different styles of Tang poetry for later generations.
Group collaboration is possible only when the individuals within it are clearly ranked and there is a social order. For Xunzi（313？-238 BC）, the ability to “work together” is what distinguishes humans from animals. Without social restraints, humans will follow their innate desires and fight over things, causing disruption within the group. That is why there must be appropriate rules for people of different ranks, with clear rights and responsibilities to guide proper conduct, which will limit discord and build collaboration.
DETAILED>>This term means safeguarding the people’s life. It first appeared in The Book of History. In the view of ancient Chinese, the mandate of heaven determined to whom supreme power in the human world belonged. The mandate was bestowed and removed according to predetermined principles. Virtuous rulers received the mandate, those without virtue lost it. The most important virtue for retaining the mandate of heaven was protecting the people, which was to ensure a safe and peaceful life for them, and this manifested the ruler’s love and care for his people. “Protecting the people” was a central goal of governance in ancient China.
If one can make the people live in peace and happiness, he can unify all the land. In ancient China, a "king" (wang 王) was not just the one who held the highest power. Rather, he was a man who clearly understood the fundamental principle of maintaining harmony with heaven and earth as well as other humans and enjoyed popular support. To "protect the people" is to love and care for them, ensuring that they obtain the means of survival, receive education and live and work in peace. To "protect the people" is the primary function of the state or government, a prerequisite for winning the people’s hearts and minds; it is also the source of legitimate power. It gives concrete expression to the vision of "putting the people first" and "benevolent governance."
These refer to two different spheres of life and sets of principles for doing things. As far as the spheres of life is concerned, being “private” refers to the life of an individual or group of individuals. Whereas being “public” refers to the public realm beyond these narrow concerns. There are different principles which govern the different spheres of life, and conflict may arise between the two. When it comes to the principles for doing things, it is in the nature of being “private” to pursue the interest of specific individuals or a particular group of individuals, while being “public” means going beyond the selfish or egoistic for the interest of the wider public.
DETAILED>>Gonglun (公论) refers to public opinion or remarks, or fair opinion or remarks. It is synonymous with yulun (舆论). Liberal-minded rulers have all through the ages valued the opinion of the majority, especially views widely held by the public and regarded them as the basis on which the correctness, legitimacy, and feasibility of a policy were judged, and even as the fundamental principle or spirit that a nation lives by. In this sense, the concept of gonglun reflects the people-oriented principle of the rule of the majority. Since the beginning of modern times, it has been used as a translation of “public opinion,” which reflects the democracy-based principle of the rule of the majority.
DETAILED>>This term means widely held ideas and attitudes among the general public. The term is made up of two Chinese characters, with the first yu (舆)referring to the general public and the second lun (论)to commentaries, perspectives, or opinions. All wise rulers in history paid attention to consulting the general public for their opinions before making policy decisions, hoping that the resultant policy would meet the needs of the people and be rational and feasible. In modern times, the term is used as the Chinese equivalent of “public opinion” and generally refers to the views of people in the society or prevailing points of view reflective of what most people think. Therefore it has become a basic concept for many disciplines, such as politics, ethics, and social psychology. In ancient times, the term reflected the governing principle of “for the people.” In modern times, however, it reflects the governing principle of “by the people.” These two are different in nature, but are interchangeable and interrelated.
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This term means that public property belongs to the public and private property belongs to individuals. Liezi held that public property, like anything naturally formed between heaven and earth, is an organic whole that cannot be divided and given to individuals at random. A clear separation of the public and private interests is in conformity with the law of nature. This concept grew out of the Daoist philosophy of “non-action governance,” which is a principle that the government should follow in its rule of a country, and also a state of one’s moral cultivation.
This term refers to natural, unadorned beauty. “Pure” means untainted, unadulterated or containing no impurity. Su (素) originally means “undyed raw silk.” Later it came to mean“ the quality of being white, authentic, unspoiled or undecorated.” Daoist thought, represented by Laozi and Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC), held that Dao is the ultimate origin of beauty in everything. Dao is natural, unassertive, simple and unadorned. Thus Daoists consider being natural, unadorned and pure as the highest form of beauty. Ancient thinkers believe that “pure and unadorned” is an authentic state of being, which retains its holistic true status free from external objects. Even if it mixes with the latter, it keeps itself natural and its core essence unimpaired. This idea extensively influenced the writing style and aesthetic pursuit of ancient Chinese literature and art. Plain and quiet poetry and plain and natural painting were upheld in ancient China, which reflect the aesthetic pursuit of the pure and unadorned.
DETAILED>>This refers to evil prevailing over good and falsehood being mistaken for truth in literature and art as well as in social life. It is red, not purple, that was viewed as a truly proper color by the ancient Chinese. Confucius（551-479 BC）, upset by the loss of judgment over good and evil, and by the fact that vulgar music was taking the place of refined classical music in the Spring and Autumn Period, called for dispelling confusion and putting things in the right order. With this in mind, Liu Xie（465？-520） of the Southern Dynasties criticized some writers for abandoning Confucian teachings and catering to vulgar tastes. Scholars of later generations used this notion to reaffirm Confucian criteria and norms for literary creation.
DETAILED>>Pursue knowledge by adding more each day. Pursue dao by subtracting some (bias and desires) each day. "Pursuing knowledge" refers to the accumulation of knowledge and wisdom, hence it uses addition to broaden and enrich. "Pursuing dao" refers to the understanding of universal principles; hence it uses subtraction to eliminate all bias and individualistic desires to get rid of unhealthy knowledge and undesirable wishes, which in turn achieves "non-action." Pursuing dao through subtraction is also a basic principle of governance advocated by Laozi. That is, established policies must be simple and easily implemented, and interfere as little as possible with the natural lives of people. This exemplifies the Daoist concept of "non-action."
DETAILED>>This term means to infer others’ thoughts with one’s own. It is exactly what Confucianism advocates as tolerance toward others, which is an important principle or method of caring for the people and cherishing all things. In the first place, such thinking believes that people basically share a common spirit. On this basis, tolerance and benevolence need to be advanced. One should show consideration for others by putting oneself in their place, and understand others by walking in their shoes. We should never do unto others what we would not want others to do unto ourselves, and whatever we would wish for ourselves, we should also help others to achieve.
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This term, first appearing in The Doctrine of the Mean, a section of The Book of Rites, means pursuit of knowledge. This term and the concept of revering the virtuous nature of human beings are important to foster one' s virtue. According to The Doctrine of the Mean, moral cultivation requires both revering the heavenly bestowed virtuous nature of human beings and constant pursuit of knowledge. In the quest of knowledge, one should gain a thorough understanding of the teachings expounded in classics and apply them in daily life. In this way, one will turn these teachings into actual deeds of virtue.
DETAILED>>This term is used in literary criticism to refer to a poetic style marked by the plainness and simplicity of wording and by a leisurely quietude. Despite its seeming sterility, such a style is full of life’s potentialities and possesses a profound appeal. This echoes the author’s mild and placid temperament, showing his mental attitude and spiritual realm of life after he has gone through life’s hardships and struggles – a natural expression of feeling which transcends all forms of verbal articulation and all rules of writing. As an aesthetic notion, quiet elegance has not only influenced artistic creation but also shaped the spiritual being of men of letters, helping to cultivate their outlook on life.
DETAILED>>This term was first used to mean to lead a quiet, peaceful life with few worldly desires. Daoism advocates blandness, believing that lack of flavor is the best possible flavor. It was highly influential in the creation of the aesthetic concept of blandness and quiet living. Beginning in the Wei and Jin dynasties, the term was used in aesthetics, referring to a peaceful and mild artistic beauty and style, as opposed to rich, loud and splendid beauty. The term does not mean insipid with no taste at all； what it refers to is a purified, refined, quiet and ethereal taste, a mild yet profound tone and flavor.
DETAILED>>It is better to be a broken but beautiful and precious jade vessel than a whole but lowly clay one. In other words, be willing to die for one’s ideals and for what is right, than live without integrity or principle. This is another way of expressing a willingness to lay down one’s life for a just cause. Respecting the meaning and dignity of life over preserving one’s own life, and upholding righteousness and justice no matter the cost has been a quality much admired through the ages. This spirit has sustained and supported the Chinese people through many centuries of hardship and suffering.
DETAILED>>This means one should acquire as much knowledge as possible from books to gain the experience of others. At the same time, one should also have as much direct contact with the world as possible to enrich one's personal experience and broaden one's horizon. When one applies theory in practice and draws on both direct and indirect experience, he will gain true knowledge.
DETAILED>>When explaining benevolence and virtue to his disciples, Confucius (551-479 BC) put forward the concept that "one should readily practice benevolence and virtue." He stressed that the accomplishment of benevolence and virtue was not driven by external norms. Rather, one should restrain himself and follow the right conduct. This means one should believe in benevolence and virtue and willingly act in compliance with them.
DETAILED>>Etiquette requires reciprocity and mutual benefit. It refers to contacts and interactions between individuals, between organizations, and between nations and implies equality and mutual benefit in interpersonal and inter-state relations. Sometimes, it also means that one should treat the other party in the way the other party treats you. It is similar to “Treating the other person the way he treats you.”
DETAILED>>Recluse poetry refers to poems written by literary figures who retreated to the remote mountains or countryside and expressed their sentiments through depicting this kind of life. Some Chinese scholars in the old days, having disdain for taking official position or were dissatisfied with political reality of the day, chose to live in seclusion in mountains and forests or in the countryside. They expressed their pursuit of a state of mind that transcended the worldly through depicting images of mountains, rivers, and other natural scenes. Tao Yuanming (365 or 372 or 376-427) is regarded as the forerunner of this genre. Inspired by his recluse lifestyle, many learned men in the post-Tang and Song period also sought solace and peace of mind in the mountains and countryside, thus giving rise to recluse poetry.
DETAILED>>The ability to recognize individuals with both moral virtue and competence, or to discern the merits and shortcomings of people, has been a profound pursuit throughout Chinese history. Many historical classics suggest that the future of a well-governed state hinges on its ability to recognize and leverage the role of virtuous and competent individuals. Identifying such outstanding talent requires those in power to not only possess distinct moral and intellectual character, but also a humility with which to guard against self-glorification. This ability, which is at the heart of good governance, is crucial to effective governance.
DETAILED>>To govern a state well, the ruler must select and employ those with outstanding virtue and talent. However, he must also be tolerant and inclusive toward people of ordinary virtue and aptitude. This is a successful combination of the traditional Chinese political concepts of “exalting the worthy” and “being compassionate.”
DETAILED>>The expression, which comes from The Analects, means only recording the ideas of ancient scholars without writing one’s own views. It represents the Confucian (551-479 BC) attitude towards the views of ancient scholars: by recording them, one showed respect for such views and aimed to pass them down. But one could also express one’s own views in the course of recording through choice of quotes depending on one’s own need or interpretation.
DETAILED>>This term stresses the need for both well-thought organization of content and its eloquent presentation in writing history. The character沈 (here pronounced chen) means “profound” or “in-depth.” The term first appeared in the preface to Selections of Refined Literature compiled by Xiao Tong (501-531), Crown Prince Zhaoming of Liang during the Southern Dynasties. It means that sub-genres in historical biographies and chronicles, such as commendations, commentaries, introductory remarks and reviews, can, through in-depth organization of content and eloquent writing, better present historical figures and events and reveal things that shaped them. Unlike literary works, historical biographies are non-fictional and make either positive or negative comments on people and events. However, commendations, commentaries, introductory remarks and reviews, as important parts of historical biographies, also have literary value, thus creating a distinctive style. Scholars of later generations used this term to refer to particular types of content and features in literary works.
DETAILED>>The term means that in a period of peace after war or social upheaval, the economy and population can recover and multiply. In practice it means the sovereign shall reduce taxes and conscript labor, support agriculture, allowing the population to procreate, life to return to normal, and society to recover. It first appeared as a governing strategy in the early Han Dynasty after the ravages of the wars with the previous Qin Dynasty. By the time the Han took over, the country was devastated and the population severely depleted. This policy allowed society to gradually recover and the nation to grow. From then on, “develop economy and increase population” became an important principle and policy of government throughout Chinese history. Sometimes it was instituted reluctantly because of specific circumstances, sometimes actively pursued as a manifestation of benevolent rule, sometimes a mixture of both. It is the concrete application of the social and political principle “the people are the foundation of the state.”
DETAILED>>This refers to the rectification of what things are called so that name and reality correspond. A name is what is used to refer to a thing, which determines the attributes of the thing and its relations with other things. “Reality” refers to a thing or an entity that its name refers to. The name of a thing should conform to what the thing actually is. However, very often name and reality do not match in real life. To deal with this situation, the name of a thing should not go beyond the nature of the thing； likewise, the reality referred to by the name must not go beyond the scope that the name implies. The “rectification of names” is an important way to maintain the social order constructed by the names. Various schools of thoughts have agreed on the necessity of rectifying names, but they differ in their views of the concrete meanings of the names to be rectified.
DETAILED>>The basic meaning of “rectitude” is uprightness. More specifically, there are two interpretations of “rectitude.” The first interpretation refers to words and deeds that meet the moral standards or the rules of propriety. To be “upright” is to refrain from doing anything immoral or illegal for the sake of personal gain. However, because there are different understandings of morality and propriety, there are also different views, even conflicting ones, of how “rectitude” is manifested. The second interpretation of being “upright” is acting in accordance with facts and not concealing the truth in order to meet the expectations or needs of others.
DETAILED>>This term refers to improving a literary work by refining its basic content and making the presentation concise. Refining and deleting is a basic process in literary writing. The term was first mentioned by Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties in his The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It means that in producing a literary work, the author should select the right elements from all the material he has, delete unnecessary parts and keep the essence, and write in a concise way to best present what he has in mind and to best suit the styles of writing. It shows that literary creation is a process of constantly striving for perfection in terms of both content and form. This idea had a great impact on the theory of theatrical writing in the Ming and Qing dynasties.
DETAILED>>Reflecting often on what one does – this is a way of self-cultivation of virtue advocated by Confucianism. This school of thought holds that as moral integrity is established with one’s efforts of self-cultivation, one needs to constantly examine his words and deeds as well as what he has in mind as a fundamental way of improving himself. Zengzi（505-436 BC) , in particular, stresses that one should everyday reflect many times on whether he has performed duties for others, treated others with good faith and whether he has reviewed what he learned to see if there is any room for improvement.
DETAILED>>The term means the ability to reflect and evaluate. Confucian scholars considered this a unique quality of the human mind. By reflecting, a person will keep himself from being led astray or getting confused by what he sees or hears. Through reflecting, a person will discover the foundation of morality. This leads to understanding the way of heaven, and eventually, the essence of being human. Without reflecting, humans will lose their individual consciousness and independence.
DETAILED>>This term refers to verses original in theme, sincere in feeling, distinctive in image, and refreshing in diction. “Refreshing” stands opposed to ornate phrases and excessive literary quotations, and indicates both fresh and natural expressions as well as elegant style and subtle aesthetic conception. What “exquisite” indicates is not that the wording itself is resplendent, but that there is complete freedom from vulgarity, and that the imagery is sharp with real sentiments. As a poetic term, it refers to the general feature of a poem, including its linguistic style.
DETAILED>>Regular script is one of the scripts of Chinese characters, also known as “proper script,” “true script,” or “model script.” To reduce the curviness and waviness of Han Dynasty clerical script, rectify the undisciplined and unregulated cursive script, facilitate writing and enhance intelligibility, calligraphers shifted toward a simpler style of writing, making both horizontal and vertical lines straighter. Thus, it evolved into the regular script. Characters written in this style looked neat and well laid out, upright and square, showing due reverence for rules governing the writing of calligraphy. This is precisely how it came to be called “model script.” It first emerged toward the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, became better known in the Wei and Jin dynasties, and fully matured and became widely accepted in the Tang Dynasty. It has been flourishing to this day. If divided by historical periods, regular script falls into two styles: Wei stone tablet regular script and Tang regular script. The former represented a transition from clerical script to regular script over the Wei, Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties period. The latter was Tang style regular script. Gaining its maturity in the Tang Dynasty, it witnessed many great calligraphers rising to fame, including Yu Shinan (558-638), Ouyang Xun (557-641), and Chu Suiliang (596-658 or 659) in the first years of the Tang Dynasty, Yan Zhenqing (708-784) in the mid-Tang Dynasty and Liu Gongquan (778-865) in the last years of the same dynasty. These calligraphers have since been honored as paragons of Chinese calligraphy. Numerous practitioners have been using their calligraphic works as models of calligraphy through the ages.
This term refers to the name of a period given by the ruling emperor to indicate and record the years of his period of rule in ancient China. When a new emperor ascended the throne, he would replace the reign title of his predecessor with a new one so as to mark the beginning of a new era. This practice started by Liu Che (156-87 BC), Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. He called his reign jianyuan (建元, 140-135 BC). Later on, this practice became a rule. An emperor might also change his reign title if he happened to see something that he believed to be extremely auspicious or in case of an event of great significance. During his reign, an emperor might use one title all through his reign or change it as many as a dozen times. People called the first year of a reign jiyuan (纪元). If the emperor changed his reign title in a certain year, it was called gaiyuan (改 元). When the Republic of China was founded in 1912, it abolished the reign title practice and began to record the time as the first year of the Republic. The People's Republic of China, established in 1949, adopted the Christian calendar. Influenced by ancient China, Korea and Vietnam used to have reign titles too. Japan still uses reign title to this day.
DETAILED>>A belief that events are not predetermined and a denial of fate is a basic component of Mohist thought. Mozi (468?-376 BC) proposed that poverty and turmoil are brought about by our own acts rather than predetermined by fate. Blaming human affairs on fate is nothing other than relieving actors of responsibility for their actions and will only bring chaos to the state and poverty to the people. Only by embracing ethical principles such as impartial love and by our own efforts, can we gain practical benefits.
DETAILED>>Rejoice in complying with the way of heaven and recognize the limitations set by the mandate of heaven. This concept originates from The Book of Changes. The way of heaven regulates human affairs and its mandate defines the limit of human power. This is beyond human capacity to change and must be faced with calm, which man must understand and face with calm. While people are subject to regulation and limitation by Heaven and its mandate, they can cultivate their virtue and make great achievements through continuous efforts. That’s why people should rejoice in complying with Heaven and its mandate.
DETAILED>>Relations between men of virtue are the opposite of those between petty men. The former are people with moral integrity and their relations are based on shared values. These relations may not seem close, but they are in fact strong and deep. The latter have low moral character and their relations are based on the pursuit of personal gains. These relations may seem intimate, but they will come to an end when nothing more is to be gained from them. Relations between men of virtue has been extolled by the Chinese since ancient times. This term distinguishes between moral integrity and pursuit of personal gains and between men of virtue and the petty men in the context of social interactions. It represents values of moral integrity possessed by men of virtue while censuring selfish pursuit of the petty man.
Chaochang (怊怅) literally means “melancholic feelings.” In this concept, it denotes the creative impulse of a writer who is in a disappointed, gloomy, or confused mood. Psychologically, feelings expressed in a common way may be simple and objective, but those to be released must be pent-up ones and based on strong impulses. If one is smoldering with inexplicable sorrow, worrying about missing and failing, or feels confused over what to pursue or something failed to obtain, catharsis may be triggered at any time. Releasing of melancholic feelings was common in the writings, and commentary on poetry and prose in ancient China.
DETAILED>>This is a concrete embodiment of ancient Chinese philosopher Laozi’s concept of shourou (守 maintain; 柔 tenderness, gentleness). Laozi believed that every object has two sides, firmness as well as tenderness, strength as well as weakness. These two sides are not absolute, but under certain conditions, they can transform into the other. However, in the long run, things that appear to be firm and strong have in actuality reached its optimum, whereas things that are seemingly tender and weak are still full of vitality and vigor, and can escalate even further, just as those states which rely on force and flaunt their superiority everywhere will ultimately move towards their own destruction. This tells us that, in governing a state, or in managing interpersonal relations, one should never be overly staunch, and should not bully the weak. Instead, one should conquer the unyielding with gentleness, be firm but gentle, and tamper force with mercy, and only then can stability and harmony be achieved.
DETAILED>>Treat a person you hold a grudge against with upright behavior. “Repaying a grudge with rectitude” was a principle proposed by Confucius（551-479 BC） for dealing with grudges. He felt that both “repaying a grudge with a grudge” and “repaying a grudge with kindness” were incorrect. Confucius argued that one should not deliberately seek vengeance out of momentary anger, nor should one conceal resentment over a grudge and repay it with kindness. Rather, one should analyze the rights and wrongs of the episode which created the grudge, and respond according to the principles of rectitude.
DETAILED>>This term means using a literary form to express resentment towards social injustice and satirize and admonish those in power. It especially refers to the poems in The Book of Songs, in which poets criticized and satirized the politics and the ruling class of the time to vent their indignation and resentment. Scholars in the Han Dynasty considered resentment in The Book of Songs as controlled venting and the satiric sting constructive admonishment. They therefore combined the two into a term of literary criticism with positive implication. After the Tang and Song dynasties, the term gained a connotation of intense criticism and indignation. However, the essential meaning was still a yearning for good governance and social harmony.
DETAILED>>The term is about appreciating and understanding the ideas in literary and artistic works and the thoughts of their authors. The original meaning was feeling a sense of resonance with music. It was later extended by literary critics in the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties to mean resonance or empathy between writers / artists and their readers / viewers. As a core concept in literary criticism, it touches upon both general and particular issues in artistic creation and appreciation, involves rich intellectual implications, and meshes with the audience’s response in Western criticism, receptive aesthetics, and hermeneutics.
DETAILED>>This term means to treat people and things with reverence. Respect is a virtue expounded by Confucian scholars which requires people to maintain a reverential attitude towards a particular group of people or things. For example, those in a lower position should respect their superiors, and the young should respect elders. In the context of different relationships, respect means either respectful awe or respectful love. Respect is a concrete expression of rules governing interpersonal relations laid out by norms of propriety. By maintaining a respectful attitude, a person can appreciate one’s inherent meaning, awaken one’s inner consciousness and maintain both self-reflection and self-control
DETAILED>>The expression denotes respect and love for one’s home and elders. In ancient times, people planted mulberry trees around their homes to raise silk worms, and catalpa trees for the wood. Gradually, these came to symbolize respect for parents and ancestors, and later extended to include their home and birthplace. Such homesickness and love of one’s native place are some of the deepest and most enduring human emotions, giving people a sense of identity and belonging. These emotions have been extolled by men of letters throughout the ages, and they have become an important manifestation of love for one’s country.
DETAILED>>The expression is from Xunzi (313?-238BC). It aims to raise the status of social norms so that they can fully exert their role. Xunzi believed that social norms regulate human behavior and are a yardstick for judging right and wrong, and they underpin the governance of a country. Humans by nature seek external desires, and do not have the inherent quality of acting for the good. So to avoid rivalry and disorder caused by unrestrained desire, it is necessary to educate people in social norms so that they will willingly follow such norms.
DETAILED>>This means respecting and valuing one’s own life as well as that of others. Since each person has only one life to live, he does not easily give up his life and will not take away other people’s lives. He who is in power should respect people’s lives and do his utmost to uphold the people’s legitimate right to life. He must not do anything harmful to people’s life and health. On the other hand, he should not just allow his life to drift along without moral purpose.
DETAILED>>Restrain your words and deeds to comply with social norms. This term comes from The Analects. It is the fundamental method Confucius（551-479 BC) recommended for achieving benevolence. According to Confucius, social norms should be the standard for cultivating benevolence. Externally, your words and deeds should be subject to social norms, but more importantly, you should restrain your own selfish desires in order to see, listen, speak, and act within such norms. Once you can “restrain yourself and practice propriety,” you will have achieved benevolence.
DETAILED>>The term means to lessen desires for external things. Humans are prone to pursue excessive desire, which can be harmful to themselves, cause problems with others and lead to social disorder. This is why both Confucian and Taoist scholars called for restraining desires. In Confucian thinking, self-moral cultivation is needed to restrain desires, which, in turn, provides an important way to foster one’s virtue. For Taoism, restraining desires can help people return to “a natural state.”
DETAILED>>Toutaobaoli, the Chinese original, literally means when you give me a peach, I will also give you a peach in appreciation. The term generally refers to reciprocating a gift in kind as an expression of mutual courtesy. What is important is not the gift itself but the goodwill conveyed by the gift as well as the desire of forging lasting friendship with the other party. The expression implies the principle of equality and mutual benefit. It is a figurative way to state a principle of “returning good for good,” which is a positive aspect of the notion of reciprocity. This principle applies to relationships big or small, ranging from those between individuals to those between states.
This phrase, which first appears in The Doctrine of the Golden Mean, a section of The Book of Rites, refers to the need to revere the virtuous nature bestowed on human beings by heaven. Together with quest for knowledge, it constitutes an ethical standard. According to The Doctrine of the Golden Mean, everyone has a heavenly bestowed virtuous nature. Scholars of later generations developed this notion further, suggesting that this inherent nature is actually a manifestation of the heavenly law in human nature. People should revere and fully express their inherent virtuous nature so as to act in keeping with the heavenly law and realize their full virtue.
This term deals with the relationship between the fundamental and the specific. In interpreting Laozi, Wang Bi (226-249) put forth the idea of “revering the fundamental and dismissing the specific,” as opposed to the idea of “revering the fundamental and keeping the specific unchanged.” The fundamental here means Dao which is shapeless and nameless, while the specific refers to man-made things in various forms and names. The term “revere the fundamental and dismiss the specific” is meant to give full rein to Dao and void so as to maintain the inherent nature of all things and at the same time stop the pursuit of all kinds of man-made things in various forms and names. Politically, “revere the fundamental” means that a sovereign should govern on the basis of Dao and do nothing that goes against nature. At the same time, he should dismiss the rigid inculcation of moral values and rules and stop all false and pretentious rhetoric and behaviors.
DETAILED>>This concept, as opposed to “revere the fundamental and dismiss the specific,” originates in Wang Bi’s (226-249) interpretation of Laozi. The fundamental, namely, Dao, is shapeless and nameless, while the specific refers to natural shapes and names. The term “revere the fundamental and keep the specific unchanged” means giving full rein to Dao and void so that the nature emerges and stays active. Politically, this term means a sovereign should govern on the basis of Dao and do nothing that goes against nature. He should revere the fundamental to ensure that the people can lead their lives as dictated by their inherent nature.
DETAILED>>This term means a reversal to an original and opposite state. By extension, it also refers to the way changes occur in a relationship of opposites. In this sense, the term has two different meanings: one is that a thing’s attribute or state will under certain circumstances always transform itself to its opposite; the other is that a thing reverts to its original or fundamental state or attribute. The concept of reversal to an opposite is an expression of the ancient Chinese understanding of the rules governing the way things change.
DETAILED>>This term means to review what has been learned and to gain new understanding and new insights. It also means to obtain guidance in the present moment by recalling the past. Wen (温) means to review； gu (故) means knowledge that has been acquired in the past； xin (新) means new and unexplored knowledge. Our predecessors had two main approaches to interpreting this term. According to one approach, reviewing the knowledge acquired in the past and understanding new knowledge should be understood as two actions taking place at the same time. In other words, one gains new knowledge in the course of reviewing the old. According to the other, reviewing the knowledge acquired in the past should be viewed as the basis and precondition for understanding new knowledge. Without reviewing, one would not be able to understand new knowledge. Furthermore, the new knowledge is a development of the old on the basis of rejecting stale and outdated ideas of the past. Today, what this term offers is more than a simple methodology for studying, but rather a fundamental mechanism for the development of an individual, an enterprise, an organization, or even a country. The term expresses a dialectical logic between the old and new, past and present, known and unknown, and inheritance and innovation.
DETAILED>>Reviewing the past helps us understand the present and predict the future. It is also said that “reviewing the past we understand the future” and “knowing the past we understand the present.” The Chinese word jian (鉴) can mean “mirror” and hence to “review the past” as if in a mirror, “understand the past,” or “gain knowledge of the past.” The lessons of the rise and fall of dynasties and states, the words and deeds of historical figures, as well as right and wrong, and good and evil, help govern the country and improve personal morality. “Understanding the present,” “reviewing the present,” or “understanding the future” means predicting the future based on the present. The rulers of antiquity saw it as extremely important to draw lessons from history in order to avoid past mistakes and justify their policies by making them conform to the needs of the country and people. The concept of “reviewing the past to understand the present” stresses both the practical significance of history and the historical depth of things present. It is similar to the concept that “past experience, if not forgotten, is a guide for the future.”
DETAILED>>Ancient Chinese believe that if the state and society are to be well-governed, what is good must be loved and what is evil must be despised in order to create a positive social environment. Good and evil should be identified and rewards and punishments should be meted out in accordance with the law. In ancient times, the good meant being reasonable, meritorious and law-abiding, whereas the evil meant being unreasonable, lawbreaking and committing crimes. Rewards and punishments were important means for running the military and the state, and were important powers exercised by rulers. Rewards and punishments are demonstrative in nature. Rewards are given to encourage the good while punishments are meted out to punish the evil. Therefore, rewards and punishments must be meted out appropriately to the right persons in accordance with regulations. Only this will create a healthy and uplifting social atmosphere. Rewards and punishments help people to develop integrity and tell good from evil.
DETAILED>>Rewards and punishments are important means of regulating people’s behavior. In ancient times, it was believed that both heaven and terrestrial rulers could implement rewards and punishments. The implementation of rewards and punishments is based on people’s desire to seek benefits and avoid harm. Rewards bring benefits, while punishments bring harm. Therefore, people usually seek rewards and avoid punishments. If rewards and punishments are applied according to clear and fixed standards, with rewards given for conforming behavior and punishments given for non-conforming behavior, people will follow these standards and regulate their behavior accordingly. However, if there are no clear and fixed standards or if rewards and punishments are misused, disorder may arise in people’s behavior and social order.
DETAILED>>This term has two meanings. Firstly, as a stylistic term in writing, it represents a combination of elegant, concordant, and melodious sounds. Rhyme originally was one of the factors contributing to the correct pronunciation of Chinese characters. Rhyme is important for poetry, including ci poetry, and ballad verses. In such writings, attention is placed on where rhyming should take place in a poetic line, whether rhymes actually match well, and rhythms’ harmonious variations, thus showing the rhythmical beauty of the Chinese language. Secondly, as a literary term, it means charm, suggesting natural fluidity and elegant simplicity. It is often used together with other Chinese characters to mean vivid charm, graceful appeal, or creative verve. Nuanced beauty is widely used in commentaries on painting, calligraphy and musical composition. Charm and vividness both refer to an indescribable appeal a piece of artistic writing emanates, but the former is more about aspects such as tenderness, implications, elegance and natural flow of such a work.
DETAILED>>Wording should be refined and colorful whereas figurative meaning should be discreet and varied. Thus opined Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties, when he summarized the creative features of The Book of Songs in the chapter “Regarding Classics as Ultimate Sources” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It also represents the universal aesthetic feature of literary creation. Complex feelings and aspirations are difficult to express in a straightforward way, so a wider variety of wording and techniques of expression are needed. Some profound aspirations cannot be directly stated, and have to be expressed in a discreet way. Thus, literary works may embrace both beautiful and colorful wording, as well as surprising and ingenious techniques of expression. They may also contain a wealth of implicit messages.
DETAILED>>The basic meaning of yi (义) is “reasonable” and “proper.” It has two extended meanings. One is the proper basis and standard for people’s actions. The other is to adjust one’s words or deeds to meet certain standards, under the guidance of moral judgments. Scholars in the Song Dynasty used li (理) or “principles of heaven” to interpret yi, and considered yi to be the reasonable standard defined by the “principles of heaven,” and hoped that people’s words and deeds would fall in line with the “principles of heaven.”
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A person of virtue takes righteousness as a fundamental principle to guide his or her acts. A “person of virtue” refers to dignitaries or persons with great talent or moral quality. Righteousness means morality and justice, as well as derivative concepts such as social norms and duties. This concept demonstrates that the qualities of the elite are shown by their righteous acts and social responsibilities.
The rites of archery were an important element in ancient Chinese etiquette. Archery was one of the six basic skills that scholars in ancient China needed to master. For a host and his guests, rites of archery involved three rounds of shooting. Based on the status of the participants and the occasion, there were three kinds of contests: the great contest (dashe) hosted by the king and ducal lords to select those to take part in sacrificial ceremonies, local contests (xiangshe) between scholars invited by local governors and held on the campuses of state-owned schools, and banquet contests (yanshe) hosted by the king or ducal lords when entertaining their officials. In such arrow shooting contests, archers must not only try hard to hit the target, they also needed to maintain the right stance and attitude. If one missed the target, he should think about whether he had maintained the right attitude. These requirements and the search for the cause of failure in oneself were in line with the requirements of moral cultivation. Therefore, in addition to being a contest of shooting skills, archery was important in fostering moral cultivation.
The term, similar in meaning to heshan (河山), literarily means rivers and mountains. It is used to refer to the sovereignty of a state and all its territory. The term has these implications: rivers and mountains provide natural barriers that protect the country and its sovereignty; territory is the key feature of a state.
DETAILED>>This term means that when writing, a writer should allow his mind to roam freely across the vast universe. It was first put forward by Western Jin scholar Lu Ji (261-303) in his work "The Art of Writing" when describing the thought process governing artistic creation. Lu Ji believes that in conceiving and creating a work of art, an artist should transcend both time and space, like a steed racing to all quarters of the universe or a soul soaring across the skies. When engaging in a creative activity, a writer should turn all his perceptual faculties inward, abandon any distracting thought and focus on the object of his aesthetic contemplation. Thus inspired, the writer will wander off as far as his mind allows, be unconstrained by the limits of time and space, and produce artistic images imbued with imagination. This concept established the basic framework of ancient Chinese art conception theory.
DETAILED>>To rule a state, use the methods for governing a state. To rule a country, use the methods for governing a country. Guanzi （？-645 BC） held that a ruler must not use the methods for governing a clan to rule a town, nor use the methods for governing a town to rule a state, nor use the methods for governing a state to rule a country. One must change one’s methods of governance according to differences in the area under one’s rule. One must broaden one’s vision and mind as the area under one’s rule expands. In modern language, the “state” could be interpreted as a country, and the “country” as the world.
Rule by law, as opposed to rule by man, calls for ruling a state and its people by the ruler through enacting and strictly enforcing laws and regulations. It is an important political thought of the Legalist scholars in the pre-Qin period. Rule by law meted out well-defined rewards and punishments, but tended to be excessively severe and rigid in enforcement. From the Han Dynasty all the way to the Qing Dynasty, rule by law and rule by man were exercised by various dynasties, mostly in combination. With the spread of Western thoughts to China in more recent times, the concept of “rule by law” acquired new implications, evolving into one of “rule of law.”
DETAILED>>Rule by man, as opposed to rule by law, is the most important ruling concept in the Confucian political philosophy in ancient China. It calls for ruling a state and its people through orderly human relations, moral standards, and other value systems. Rule by man emphasizes the fundamental role and importance of people in conducting political affairs. It emphasizes that a ruler should have a lofty and noble character, select competent officials with integrity to run the state, and educate and influence the general public. In Chinese history, this concept of governance was designed to achieve a harmonious relationship between the sovereign, his officials, and his subjects, which meant “benevolent governance.”
DETAILED>>This principle of governance was proposed by Guan Zhong (?-645 BC), a statesman in the Spring and Autumn Period, and implies the concept of “state justice.” Zheng (正) means fair, which includes adhering to principles, having a virtuous character, and acting justly. Guan Zhong believed that the state must first and foremost uphold the principle of justice, or else it will not function properly and thus become ungovernable. This sounds almost contemporary, as modern scholars too argue that the state must have a moral character, of which justice is generally recognized as a part. Without justice, no state can be considered properly constituted.
DETAILED>>Zhi (治) here means a state of good governance; wuwei (无为non-action) does not mean doing nothing, but instead not acting in an over-assertive manner, inother words, not imposing one’s will. In Daoist thinking, this expression means the ruler must respect the natural conditions of those governed (the people); he must not interfere unduly in their lives but allow them to follow their own desires and ways to fulfill themselves. Through “non-action” everything will be actually achieved. The focus is “Dao operates naturally.” In Confucian thinking, “non-action” means the ruler governs by influencing and motivating his subjects through his moral example and achievements, not through decrees, or coercive punishments, so that they act without being ordered, and social harmony is achieved. The focus here is something similar to “teaching people essential ideals and principles and guiding them to embrace goodness so as to build a harmonious social order.” Both the Confucian and Daoist schools of thought advocate governance through respect for the intrinsic nature of people and society, not through too much interference or imposition.
DETAILED>>It refers to rules and principles. The term denotes not only natural laws governing the movement of things in the universe, but also ethical principles that guide human life. These rules, laws, and principles establish the fundamental order in the world in which we live; and their violations will lead to turmoil and disaster. Some believe that the universe and human society are governed by the same rules and principles, with society inheriting or following the rules and laws of the universe. Others argue that the universe and human society follow separate and independent rules and laws.
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Running script is a calligraphic form between cursive script and regular script. A Chinese character written in the style of running script retains the basic structure of characters written in official script. Running script features smoothly-linked strokes, and the characters written in this style are easy to recognize. Generally, people believe that running script was created by Liu Desheng of the Eastern Han Dynasty and became popular in the Wei and Jin eras. This writing style reminds one of drifting clouds and flowing water. It has no fixed arrangement for the radicals of a character and can be executed with any writing tools. The same characters written in this style by different people are different in appearance. The best-known masterpieces in this style are Wang Xizhi’s (303-361, or 307-365, 321-379) “Preface to the Collection of Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion,” Yan Zhenqing’s (708-784) “Draft Elegy to Nephew Ming,” and Su Shi’s (1037-1101) “The Cold Food Observance.” They are distinctive in style and have great aesthetic value.
This concept describes that objects frequently in motion are not affected by external factors, and can last a long time. It also means that movement sustains life and vigor. In modern days, it means that existing thought and ideas must be continuously reviewed and critiqued, and that there must be criticism and self-examination to avoid becoming conservative and inflexible. This is the way to ensure continuing change and progress. The philosophical implication is that motion is the foundation of the world and the source of vitality of all things.
DETAILED>>Coined by Confucius (551-479BC), the concept of sacrificing one’s life to preserve virtue complete did not mean that he did not value human lives, rather he believed that beyond the preservation of life, people should have a higher pursuit, that is, to preserve their virtue. According to him, for those who aspire to develop or preserve virtue, when they have to choose between life and virtue, they should choose the latter.
DETAILED>>The sacrificial ceremony is one of the major rituals in the life of the Chinese. In ancient times, sacrificial ceremonies were held to show reverence for heaven, earth, the sun, the moon, mountains, rivers, or ancestors. By holding a sacrificial ceremony for such things or ancestors, people showed their respect and awe for them, which they hoped would protect and give blessings to themselves. The rites observed during the sacrificial ceremony reflected the social status of ceremony participants. Sacrificial ceremonies are still conducted today, but both the way they are conducted and their significance have greatly changed.
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The other meaning of this term is an ode composed to urge the emperor to hold such a sacrificial ceremony or to record its actual process if a sacrificial ceremony was held to extol his achievements. Such an ode was first written by Sima Xiangru (179?-118 BC) of the Western Han Dynasty. Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties held that the ode, as a declaration of royal achievement in its era, should be solemn, grand, factual, eloquent and graceful. To extol an emperor's greatness and the miraculous power of heaven and earth, the author should select old yet lucid words from the classics, or use new words rich in implication. He should give free rein to his imagination. Sacrificial odes later became standard commemorative speeches. Liu Xie's requirements, when observed, may help boost the image or morale of a company, a governmental or cultural institution, a region or even the whole country. Good ceremonial speeches, poems or essays can become representative writings of a particular era.
DETAILED>>It refers to a person of consummate virtue. Sages were regarded by the ancient Chinese as having the highest level of character and integrity. They knew the way of heaven and the hearts of people, and could thus make rules and regulate human ethics. With their exemplary statements and behavior, they were paragons of virtue. But scholars have different interpretations as to what sagely virtues mean. According to Confucian scholars, sages are those who practice virtues such as benevolence and righteousness in a perfect way and foster moral virtues in others. In the Daoist view, however, sages should adopt a "non-action" approach to life, accept people for what they are, and let them do as they please.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the highest realm of human integrity and morality, hence one who has reached this state is a sage. It is often used in relation to “intelligence,” since an intelligent man understands the way of man, while a sage understands the way of heaven. Thus a sage with knowledge of the way of heaven will interact successfully with other people.
DETAILED>>A king of great virtue, namely, a sage, by observing the way of heaven and based on his understanding of human nature, establishes social norms and laws to regulate public lives. What he says and does are thus the model for all to follow. If a king possesses such great virtue, he is called a sage king. According to Confucianism, if a sage becomes the king, he would create an ideal state of governance. However, those whom Confucian scholars considered as sages never had the opportunity to become kings after Confucius’ (551-479 BC) time.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the dual character of aesthetic appreciation of classic Chinese poetry highlighted by the early modern scholar Wang Guowei (1877-1927), from the perspective of the relationship between the self and the external world. In his renowned literary theoretic work Poetic Remarks in the Human World, Wang put forward the notion of "the scene jingjie （visionary world），arguing that only poetry written to invoke such a state can be deemed excellent work. He regarded this notion not only as a creative principle of poetry but also a criterion for poetry criticism. Besides, he used it to recount the evolution of poetry and to evaluate the taste or merit of a poem and its author. He also raised many propositions concerning the visionary world. Of these, the most important is the binary term "scene involving the self / scene not involving the self." "Scene involving the self" means that the author incorporates personal feelings into the literary image he creates, thus imbuing it with a tremendous emotional force. “Scene not involving the self,” on the other hand, does not mean a lack of emotion; rather, the author tempers this emotional force by exercising restraint and achieving a perfect harmony between personal feelings with literary imagery. To him, "without the self in it" is a perfectly natural state of creation, without any need for fabrication or alteration; therefore, it represents the highest level of artistic excellence. Overall, this term marks the starting point of Wang's literary criticism and the final destination of his literary thought.
DETAILED>>To search for and retrieve one’s lost heart is a way to cultivate one’s morality propounded by Mencius(372?-289 BC). In his view everyone was born with a benevolent heart, which meant the “four initiators” of benevolence, righteousness, rites and social norms, and wisdom. These are virtues conferred by Heaven and the sources of human kindness. However, people may be influenced by external factors or the environment when growing up. In that case, their innate goodness may be weakened or obscured and hence they may act or speak in contrary to moral principles. Therefore, when cultivating one’s moral character, one must find and recover one’s innate good heart.
DETAILED>>The term, which first appeared in the Chinese classic writing Zhuangzi (Zhuangzi 369 ?-286 BC), means that one can easily see the existence of the dao with no need to rely on verbal explanation or on logical analysis. Later it was used for literary creations and in the field of connoisseurship. The concept emphasizes the need for one to transcend audio and visual perceptions and logical analysis, and do away with any interfering thoughts or external objects in order to attain true appreciation of art. The concept highlights the importance of seeking intuitive insights unaffected by utilitarian considerations in literature and art.
DETAILED>>This refers to a worldview or lifestyle that seeks to reconcile differences and contradictions among things. In “On Seeing Things as Equal”, Zhuangzi（369？-286 BC） analyzes the unpredictable nature of the world to reveal that different or opposing things are inherently interconnected. In striving to understand the world, one should therefore first of all identify the interconnectedness among all things in the world, see all as equal, and abandon personal preferences, likes and dislikes. In this way, one’s heart can be above all material things and free from their constraints and influences, and the differences and contradictions among things will no longer burden one’s mind or one’s life.
DETAILED>>The term means to seek points of agreement while maintaining difference of opinion. Scholars of the Warring States Period such as Hui Shi (370?-310? BC) and Zhuangzi (369？-286BC) believed that differences and antitheses between all things are relative, and that commonalities exist within differences. From a dialectical perspective, differences between all things are relative and there is always the possibility of one thing transforming into its opposite. The Confucian culture represented by Confucius (551-479 BC) stressed that in relations between people and between states, “harmony without uniformity” should be achieved through accommodation, provided that differences between the parties are recognized. The greatest possible consensus between all sides is ultimately reached by acknowledging the existence of differences or setting them aside. To achieve such consensus, people should recognize the diversity of cultures and values and not seek absolute unanimity or forced agreement; and they should look at problems as much as possible from the perspective of others. This approach subsequently became an important principle underlying China’s handling of foreign relations.
DETAILED>>Seeking novelty without deviating from the proper way is a fundamental principle for writing and learning. In the Southern Dynasties, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) affirmed the new writing styles initiated by Odes of Chu and expressed his admiration for its novel contents and new expressions, but he insisted that writings should be carefully considered based on and in reference to The Book of Songs. The concept of seeking novelty without deviating from the proper way emphasizes the need to stay true to universal laws, objective knowledge, broadly shared ideas, common emotions and good things in the world, and that all excellent experiences or good paradigms of literary creation should be preserved, so as to ensure that the development of thought and culture, the evolution of literature and art, and the writing of articles will not deviate from the proper way, and will continue to improve with the work of ancient sages and excellent classics as the foundation.
DETAILED>>This is a basic requirement of officials in traditional Chinese political philosophy. Essentially it advocates the spirit of an official who does not abuse power to seek personal benefit, who works wholeheartedly for the public, who never shirks responsibility and is dedicated to service even if it requires self-sacrifice.
DETAILED>>This term means handling things correctly according to realities of the situation. The term was originally used to describe the rigorous attitude of ancient Chinese scholars who paid great attention to acquiring solid facts in order to arrive at the correct understanding or conclusion. Later, it has come to mean expressing ideas or handling matters according to reality. It is a methodological principle on cognition and a fundamental principle underpinning behaviors and ethics. Basically, it calls for behaving in a practical, realistic, and honest way.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the traditional way through which men were selected and appointed to government offices. Designed to achieve an ideal state of rule, the method worked to select and recommend people with outstanding virtue and talent into the system of political power and put them to official posts, where they took charge of the governance of the country. Although the mechanism varied from dynasty to dynasty, it always emphasized a person’s moral integrity, ability, wisdom, and family background. It basically ensured that social elites had vertical mobility in the system of political power, and reflected the concepts of “rule of man” and “rule of virtue.”
DETAILED>>The concept of“self,”or“myself” is often contrasted with the concept of“the other,”or“others.”Referring to oneself, the concept sometimes suggests the will of the subject. Defining oneself based on this concept distinguishes one from others, and others from oneself. This distinction is an important aspect of the construction of order. However, too much emphasis on self and one’s own interests can easily lead to confrontation and conflict with others. Therefore, some people advocate that one should put oneself in another person’s position and care for others in a compassionate way; it has also been suggested that one should abandon oneself or completely break the boundary between oneself and others.
DETAILED>>Self-cultivation is the starting point of several steps moving outward. The next step is managing family affairs, followed by governing the state. The final step is moving to provide peace and sound governance to all under heaven. This process is a fundamental theme in Confucian moral philosophy and discourse on politics. It is a gradually expanding process beginning with the individual and emanating outward into serving and benefiting an ever-larger whole. In such a process an individual’s virtue and self-improvement are inseparable from his political aspirations.
DETAILED>>The ability to control one’s self includes cultivating one’s mind, controlling one’s behavior, and managing one’s affairs. Politically, it falls into the category of “rule by man,” in which the ruler exercises strict self-discipline and sets an example, so that the people also manage their affairs properly. This leads to positive social governance. In modern times, zizhi (自治) is used as the counterpart of “autonomy” or “self-government,” so it has become a political concept. It means that, within a state, ethnic groups, geographic regions and civil groupings have a certain amount of administrative independence while still following national, government and organizational regulations, e.g., “local autonomy,” and “regional ethnic autonomy.”
DETAILED>>The term indicates that all things in heaven and on earth do not depend on external forces. Rather, they take shape and change by themselves independently. It was put forward by Guo Xiang (?-312) in his Annotations on Zhuangzi. Specifically, the term contains three meanings. Firstly, all things in heaven and on earth form and change naturally. Secondly, all things in heaven and on earth form and change independent of one another. Thirdly, all things in heaven and on earth form and change suddenly, without any reason or purpose. The concept of self-driven development denies the existence of a creator. At the same time, it also denies that one thing causes the occurrence and existence of another. However, according to this concept, all things in the universe, naturally formed, co-exist in harmony.
DETAILED>>The proverb, which is similar in meaning with the concept “prolonged suffering from an illness will turn a person into a
doctor,” comes from The History of the Han
Dynasty. It later
changed into sayings like “taking no medicine is better than seeing a mediocre doctor,”
which means essentially it is better not to see a doctor than to be mistreated by a mediocre doctor. Incompetent treatment
will make a patient sicker rather than better. On the other hand, certain
illnesses can recover automatically over time without treatment. This saying
speaks to the rejection of people of mediocre doctors and longing for competent ones. At
the same time, it also implies the notion that some diseases can cure themselves over time without treatment.
A person’s creative impulse is triggered by one or more externalities, and after conceptualization and artistic treatment, this results in a work of art. Such externalities include both natural sights and scenes from life which can be directly sensed. Ancient Chinese believed that creation resulted from externalities which evoked a desire to create, and that works of art and literature were the result of combining externalities with subjective thinking. This term emphasizes the fundamental idea that artistic creation is rooted in life.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the mutual dependence and integration of an author’s description of scenery and objects, and his expression of feelings in his literary creation. Qing (情) is an author’s inner feelings, and jing (景) refers to external scenery or an object. The theory of sentiment and scenery stresses integration of the two, maintaining that sentiment can hardly be aroused without scenery and that scenery or an object cannot be appreciated without sentiment. This term appeared in the Song Dynasty. Compared with earlier notions about sentiment and scenery, this one is more emphatic about fusing the depiction of scenery with the expression of feelings, and the process of creation with that of appreciation.
DETAILED>>The separation of an object’s hardness from its whiteness is a proposition advanced by Gongsunlongzi（320？-250 BC）. Looking at a hard and white stone, one can only see its whiteness but not its hardness; while touching the stone with one’s hand, one can only feel its hardness but not that it is white. Hardness and whiteness are separate. They do not manifest themselves at the same time: thus, a white stone that is hard cannot be called a hard and white stone. Gongsunlongzi used this example to express his understanding of the properties of things. These properties are independent of each other and cannot simultaneously be joined in the same thing.
DETAILED>>This term refers to three great accomplishments that are forever remembered and eulogized by the people. The first and foremost is to set a high moral standard for people of later generations to follow. The second is to perform meritorious deeds, bringing good to the country and the people and rooting out evils. The third is to put forth noble ideas or establish them as a way of thinking through writing them down. According to Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, these great accomplishments were proposed by Shusun Bao from the State of Lu. In Shusun’s opinion, private benefits that individuals or families have, such as wealth, official ranking, and social status, will disappear with the passage of time. Only the great accomplishments that benefit the country and the people, including setting out high moral standards, performing great deeds, and inseminating noble ideas, can be passed on for eternity. These three great accomplishments have been the lifelong pursuit of ancient Chinese literati and people of noble aspirations.
DETAILED>>This refers to various human emotions and desires. The term “seven emotions” comes from The Book of Rites, referring to happiness, anger, sadness, fear, love, hatred, and desire. The term “six desires” first appeared in Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals, referring to human desire for life, desire against death, and the desires of human organs such as ears, eyes, mouth and nose for sound, color, taste and aroma. Later, the term “seven emotions and six desires” came to be used to describe people’s emotions and desires in general. Such emotions and desires, being naturally born with people, should be released or satisfied as appropriate. But they should not become excessive.
DETAILED>>Shame is an important part of moral psychology. Once there are commonly accepted morals and once people find that their own words and deeds violate those morals, they will consciously feel guilt and self-reproach – this is known as “shame.” Confucians considered the development of such a moral psychology to be an important goal of ethics education. In addition to wanting people to abide by external moral norms, they also wanted them to develop an internal awareness of moral behavior, and to achieve moral self-constraint through a sense of shame. This term was later used to judge immoral words and deeds, i.e., shameful.
DETAILED>>Shaping the mind through education was a key concept of the political philosophy and an essential way of governance in ancient China. Rulers usually used a combination of means, both visible and invisible, to subtly spread their values among people so that these values would be observed in people’s daily life, leading to integration of governance and social mores. These means include issuing administrative decrees, conducting moral education, creating a favorable environment, disseminating popular literature that promoted ethical values, and selecting officials through imperial examinations.
DETAILED>>This is an idea put forward by Mencius (372?-289BC?), who held that enjoying music alone was not as rewarding as enjoying it with others. His argument for sharing stemmed from his philosophy that calls for caring about and being considerate towards ordinary people as well as being people-centered and benevolent in governing. This idea from Mencius was adopted by subsequent scholar-officials, and Qian Gongfu (1021-1072) of the Northern Song Dynasty was one of them. Qian built on the South Lake a pavilion called Zhongle Pavilion or Pavilion of Joy Sharing, when he was the magistrate of Mingzhou Prefecture (now Ningbo, Zhejiang Province). He also wrote poems about the pavilion lauding the idea of sharing joy. In his “Memorial to Yueyang Tower,”Fan Zhongyan (989-1052) expressed his view that as an official one should anticipate the worries of the people and be the first to care, and be the last to enjoy, only after seeing that others were all happy. Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) also voiced a similar sentiment of joy sharing in his “The Old Drunkard Pavilion.”Since then, sharing joy has been a theme in classical Chinese literary creation and also a manifestation of the traditional Chinese spirit of benevolence.
The term originally referred to shield and fortress, but was later used to mean dukes and princes, and then defenders of a regime, theory or proposition. Gan (干shield), a defensive weapon in old days, is used to mean to defend, while cheng (城) means inner and outer city walls or a fortress, a structure for defensive purposes. Dukes and princes were likened to gancheng (干城), in contrast with chongcheng (崇城), which means supreme city, referring to the Son of Heaven and indicating his supreme position. It is meant that dukes and princes, likened to shield and fortress, had the responsibilities to defend the Son of Heaven. Hence, dukes and princes must obey orders from the Son of Heaven. As it has evolved over time, the term generally referred to loyal and efficient defenders. Interestingly, it came to mean that not only people of lower ranks defend their superiors, but also people of high positions defend their subordinates.
DETAILED>>Dangran (当然), literally meaning “should be so,” is often used to describe the fact that something should exist or work in a specific manner, or the fact that someone should behave in a certain way. It implies some degree of legitimacy and reasonableness, indicating that the functioning of things and the conduct of people should adhere to legitimate rules and reasonable manners. The Song Dynasty scholar Zhu Xi (1130-1200) believed that these rules come from and embody tianli (天理the natural principles). Therefore, exploring the rules of dangran is the primary focus of qiongli (穷理exhausting principles).
DETAILED>>The first of these two Chinese characters means simple and honest. The second one means sparing of words. People should embrace moral standards with all their hearts rather than cultivate an ostentatious appearance in an attempt to seek fame and gain. To be simple and sparing of words underscores a determination to reject vanity, avoid pretentious behavior and rhetoric, and to concentrate on cultivating one’s moral character. Confucian scholars regard being simple and honest and sparing of words as an important virtue, close to what is required for being benevolent. In this particular context, being “simple and sparing of words” has no connotation of dull-mindedness or being reticent.
Sincerity is among the core concepts of the Confucian school of thought. Basically, it means truthfulness without deceit. Confucians believed that sincerity is the essence of the “way of heaven” or “principles of heaven,” a basis on which everything else is built. At the same time, sincerity is also the root and foundation of morality. All moral deeds must be conducted on the basis of sincerity from the bottom of the heart. Otherwise, they are nothing but pretensions. The Doctrine of the Mean maintains, “Nothing can be achieved without sincerity.” Sages are sincere by nature. Therefore, their words and deeds are naturally consistent with the “way of heaven” and the “principles of heaven.” Junzi (a man of virtue) upholds sincerity as his goal for moral attainment and an approach to achieving the “way of heaven” and the “principles of heaven.”
DETAILED>>The term originally referred to the appearance of an artist who is concentrating on painting. It has been extended to mean an unrestrained state of mind free from external interruption when an artist is doing creative work. The book Zhuangzi describes a painter drawing freely with his clothes thrown open and legs stretching out. “To unbutton one’s clothes” is to expose one’s chest and arms; and “to sit with legs stretching out” indicates a casual posture while one is concentrating on painting. This term stresses the importance of a relaxed state and complete freedom of mind to the successful creation of quality artwork. This concept had significant influence on subsequent development of theories on calligraphy and painting in later generations.
DETAILED>>This refers to the situation or trend in the development of things. The formation, existence and change of a situation hinges on how things are organized, their relative strength, and how they interact with each other. It also refers to topography, such as occupying a commanding position at a high location. It may also refer to how people behave as influenced by their social positions. In terms of literary work, a trend refers to a particular force running through a literary work arising from its structure and style. The impact of a tendency upon people and social affairs gives rise to laws governing nature and social development. One can accomplish great things by following and gaining a good command of social trends. Under certain conditions, one changes the developmental course of things by creating trends.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the following six criteria on literary appreciation and criticism which are also six key elements in writing: structural layout of writing, choice of words to construct sentences, acceptance and innovation in the style of earlier writers, inheriting and transforming traditional ways of expression, citing examples to support an argument, and musical rhythm. As a school of literary criticism, the six criteria formed a key component in the theoretical system established in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. The six criteria offered rules that could be followed to avoid subjectivity in literary criticism. They also provided a framework of theoretical guidance for later generations of critics and exerted significant influence on the development of literary theory in modern times.
DETAILED>>The concept of six emotions first appeared in Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals. According to the book, Zitaishu (?-507 BC) proposed the six emotions when discussing the differences in etiquette and rituals. People’s six emotions are love, hate, delight, anger, sadness, and joy. Zitaishu believed that the six emotions are created by heaven and earth, and therefore contain an inherent order that is connected to heaven and earth. People should follow this inherent order and regulate and settle their six emotions.
DETAILED>>This term means six different forms of qi (vital force). Their earliest mention is found in Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals. Qi is the basic element of all things corporeal, and flows between heaven and earth. It manifests itself in six different forms: yin, yang, wind, rain, darkness (night), and light (day). They appear in pairs of opposites: yin versus yang, wind versus rain, and darkness versus light. Their interaction produces complicated and varied forms of human and other natural phenomena.
DETAILED>>The term refers to six techniques and aesthetic principles for painting formulated by Xie He, a painter between Qi and Liang of the Southern Dynasties. After studying famous painters of the previous age, he summarized his views on painting in six basic rules: dynamic style, forceful brush strokes, life-like image, characteristic coloring, careful arrangement and imitation and copying models. In this way, he established a theoretical framework for traditional painting. “Dynamic style” means that a painting should make the viewers appreciate its vitality and charm. This is a general principle focusing on the aesthetic effect. The other five rules concern specific techniques. “Forceful brush strokes” means being able to wield the brush to portray characters freely with lines of various shapes. “Life-like image” means the image should vividly capture the form of the depicted. “Characteristic coloring” means applying color according to the characteristics of the subject of the painting. “Careful arrangement” means a composition should achieve a good overall effect. “Imitation and copying models” means copying masterpieces to refine one’s painting skills. These rules became the basis for later art criticism and discourse on the five aspects of technique, providing a summary of ideal painting techniques and enriching theory on painting. The “six rules of painting” cover the basic techniques and aesthetics of ancient Chinese painting. They also established guidelines for art appreciation and influenced criticism and artistic creation in China from the Six Dynasties on.
Different attributes of the same object, such as solidity and whiteness, fulfill one another. This proposition was made by the later Mohist scholars. When you look at a solid white stone, you can only see its color, without knowing it is solid; when you touch the stone, you can only feel its solidity, without knowing it is white. Though solidness and whiteness cannot be perceived by a single sensory organ, the two attributes cannot be separated from each other, because they are possessed by the same stone. Later Mohist scholars used the example of the solid white stone to explain that attributes of any single object, though perceivable through different organs, are intimately associated with each other.
DETAILED>>The Son of Heaven refers to the emperor or monarch, the supreme ruler of an empire or dynasty. People in ancient times believed that a monarch ruled the world by Heaven’s decree and with its mandate, hence he was called the Son of Heaven. This term asserted that a ruler’s authority was legitimate and sacred, as it was bestowed by Heaven, but to some extent, it also restricted the exercise of this power. This has some similarity to the Western concept of the divine right of kings by the grace of God, but there are fundamental differences. Tian (天), the Chinese word for Heaven, is not the same as the Western term “God.” Rather, the Chinese term also implies the idea of interaction between Heaven and man, which means that the decree of Heaven also embodies popular will and popular support.
DETAILED>>Songs are a kind of short, rhyming composition. It is a form of artistic creation combining literature, music, and even dance which can be sung. The difference between songs and poems in ancient China is that the former could be made into music and sung, whereas the latter could not. In a broad sense, the term includes children’s ballads and folk ballads. In a narrow sense, songs and ballads are different. Songs have a fixed melody and musical accompaniment, while ballads do not. Songs were created mostly by folk musicians, such as “A Slow Song” of the Han Dynasty and the folk song “Song of the Chile” during the Northern Dynasties. A small number of songs, however, were written by members of the literati, like “Ode to the Great Wind” by Liu Bang (256 or 247-195 BC) and “The Midnight Melody of the Land of Wu” by Li Bai (701-762). Songs are one of the early forms of ancient Chinese poetic art and were generally classified as yuefu (乐府) poetry in ancient China. In modern times, they are called poetic songs as a part of poetry.
DETAILED>>The term refers to a form of theatrical performance combining song and speech popular in the Jin and Yuan periods. The drama is composed of sets of songs. Each set of songs is composed of the same mode of music, or gongdiao. During the performance, one set of songs is followed by another set of songs. Between them, the performer adds spoken narrative to explain the story and string the plot together. Sometimes single ditties are added. The genre had a marked influence on the development of Yuan zaju or opera. The zhugongdiao version of Romance of the Western Chamber by Dong Jieyuan is the most intact extant zhugongdiao drama, and represents the best of Jin Dynasty opera.
DETAILED>>This term refers to sounds produced by all things in nature between heaven and earth. Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) divided sounds into three categories: “human sounds,” “terrestrial sounds,” and “celestial sounds.” According to him, “human sounds” refer to sounds made by a vertical bamboo flute when a person blows air into its top end. “Terrestrial sounds” refer to sounds produced by the earth’s apertures when wind blows through them. “Celestial sounds” are not totally different from the above two. They refer to multifarious sounds made naturally by all things in the universe, which are not sounds created by external factors. By defining the “sounds of nature” this way, Zhuangzi meant to minimize the influence of the subjective mind so as to discover and respect the natural state of all things. People of later generations generally use this term to describe a literary work such as a poem or an essay that is written in a smooth way and has the appeal of natural charm. They also use the term “music of Nature” to refer to naturally produced sounds that are pleasant to the ear.
DETAILED>>Nanxi (南戏), the Southern Opera, refers to the Han ethnic opera from the late Northern Song to the late Ming and the early Qing dynasties. The opera was created in the Wenzhou region when the Song court fled south. At the time, it was also known as chuanqi (传奇 drama), xiwen (戏文 play) as well as the Wenzhou Zaju (温州杂剧 Wenzhou Opera), the Yongjia Zaju (永嘉杂剧 Yongjia Opera), and the Yongjia Xiqu (永嘉戏曲 Yongjia Play). Drawing on local folk singing styles, the Southern Opera first developed on the basis of village operas without any traces of palace styles and rhymes, and it was noted for being natural and smooth in singing. A Tale of the Pipa, a play by Gao Ming (1301？–1370？), marked the maturity of the Southern Opera. The Southern Opera inherited the Song zaju and heralded the emergence of the legendary play of the Ming Dynasty. Legendary plays were long enough to accommodate multiple roles and all performers sang. The Southern Opera masterpieces include The Romance of a Hairpin, The Story of the White Rabbit, The Moonlight Pavilion, and The Killing of a Dog. Many operas in southern China were created based on the Southern Opera.
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This term refers to the Southern Opera. The latter is a type of local opera which had developed from traditional folk songs and dances and was popular in China’s southeastern coastal areas from the late Northern Song Dynasty to the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. It ran parallel to zaju that was popular in the north at the same historical period. It later developed into the legendary drama in the Ming and Qing dynasties. As the earliest, mature operatic form, it best represents traditional Chinese opera. Hence Xiwen (戏文) is widely used to refer to script of traditional Chinese operas.
DETAILED>>This concept consists of several pairs of opposites: sparsity and density, brevity and thoroughness, roughness and precision, flexibility and rigor, and estrangement and intimacy. In the artistic criticism of painting and calligraphy, the term is used to mainly describe the structural arrangement, general layout, as well as dark or light, thick or thin execution of strokes in these two art forms. In literary criticism, “sparsity” and “density” often occur together. “Sparsity” means carefree, rough or sketchy. It refers especially to thoughtlessness, carefreeness or looseness in the creation of prose and poetry. “Density” means meticulous, tight or compact. It often refers to rigor and thoroughness in theme development, logic, and wording in the creation of prose and poetry, and occasionally to the demerit of piling too many words up for no good reason. Ancient Chinese believed that sparsity and density represent a unity of opposites. A good work of art should balance density with sparsity in both structure and layout.
DETAILED>>The key to winning a war is to act speedily. And the key to victory in warfare lies in seizing the initiative. Seizing the initiative means seizing the opportunity, because war situations change rapidly and opportunities to fight come and go instantly. So the army must act quickly to ensure the suddenness and success rate of combat operations. Otherwise, the initiative may easily fall into the enemy’s hands. If the war is prolonged, not only will there be unexpected consequences, but there will also be lowering of the army’s morale, leading to less effective combat and even falling into passivity (this is the same as the principle that “in war, seek quick victory, not prolongation”). This concept is also used to motivate people to do things decisively and quickly. It not only embodies the wisdom of Chinese military science, but also the philosophy that all procedures unfold according to time.
DETAILED>>A country must estimate its annual expenditure in advance, and, on this basis, determine the amount of revenue to be levied on the people. This is known as “spend-and-tax.” It is a fiscal principle followed by all rulers since the Han Dynasty and contains the rudiments of budgetary thinking upheld by later generations.
Everything comes into being by itself; it is not created or generated by heaven, void, or tangible things. The expression “spontaneous generation” rejects the concept of a creator. People have different views about the concrete circumstances of the “spontaneous generation” of things. Some believe that things which are “spontaneously generated” are interrelated and dependent on one another, while some others assert that everything is “spontaneously generated” by itself abruptly, unconnected with others.
DETAILED>>This is the most important traditional festival for the Chinese nation and overseas Chinese. In the narrow sense, it is the first day of the Lunar New Year. In a broader sense, it refers to the festival that occurs between the 23rd day of the last lunar month (the day of Offerings to the Kitchen God) and the 15th day of the first lunar month (the Lantern Festival). In a modern sense, Spring Festival is a mixture of the beginning of the New Year and the Beginning of Spring on the lunar calendar. During Spring Festival, people pay tribute to deities and their ancestors, post auspicious couplets and New Year paintings, buy new year’s goods and put on new clothes, have a family reunion dinner, give children gift money, stay up the whole night on New Year's Eve to say goodbye to the departing year, set off firecrackers and visit relatives and friends. In terms of family relationships and religion, people make sacrifices to ancestors and deities for the protection of their family members. In addition, Spring Festival reflects the importance Chinese people attach to family reunion, harmony within a family and kinship. When it comes to the Chinese people’s sense of life and sense of time, they not only bid farewell to the departing year and express their welcome to the new year, they also express their expectation for a better future. Through the influence of Chinese culture, some of China’s neighboring countries also celebrate Spring Festival.
DETAILED>>“Squareness,” used in collocation with “roundness,” refers to the shapes and properties of things, or sometimes to the methods and rules of making things square or round. Ancient Chinese believed that heaven is round and earth is square. Heaven revolves, accommodates, and harmonizes. Earth, in contrast, is still, firm, and straightforward. They argued that humans should conduct themselves in imitation of the ways heaven and earth operate, and be “round” on the outside and “square” within, meaning that people should be suitably flexible but firm on issues of principle. In artistic and literary creation, especially in calligraphic creations, ancient Chinese held that regular script should be “square” whereas cursive script should be “round.” However, no matter which type of script is adopted, squareness and roundness should be applied in harmony with each other.
DETAILED>>It’s the key to governance to ensure sustained stability. Zheng (政) refers to the fundamental systems, laws, and policies of a state. Gui (贵) means the most valuable thing. Youheng (有恒) means to ensure stability. A country, especially a large country, must preserve the constancy of its basic systems and fundamental laws. Laws, especially fundamental ones, must not be changed from time to time at random. Otherwise, the country will land into political turmoil and social chaos, resulting in irreversible and irreparable damages. This is the same notion as embodied in the saying “governing a big country is like cooking small fish.”
DETAILED>>When a country is at peace, its people enjoy a happy life. This term is similar to another ancient concept – “peaceful land.” Since ancient times, this has been the goal of governance pursued by all decent rulers. It has also been a vision cherished by commoners. The key to reaching such a state lies with stability and peace. This has been regarded as the common source of well-being for both the country and the people. It also reflects the humanistic spirit of the Chinese people who cherish stability and peace.
DETAILED>>In the Northern Song Dynasty, Yang Shi (1053–1135), together with his friend You Zuo (1053–1123), went to visit the renowned scholar Cheng Yi (1033–1107) to seek his answer to some questions they had. Cheng was having a nap. Not to disturb him, they waited outside the gate, standing in heavy snowfall. When Cheng woke up, he was deeply moved and gave detailed answers to Yang Shi's questions. Yang later became a great scholar. This story urges students to learn from their teachers respectfully. A similar story is told in a Zen Buddhist text. Huike (487-593), a Buddhist monk, sought guidance from Bodhidharma (?-528 or 536), who is credited with having introduced Zen to China. Huike also waited a long time at night
Poems and lyrics arise from genuine feelings, which, however, should not be excessive but be controlled by ritual propriety and righteousness, so as to be tactfully persuasive. This term was first used when commenting on The Book of Songs and then developed into a guiding principle for literary creation in general. It not only acknowledges people's instinctive desires and the need to express and describe such desires, but also emphasizes that Confucian ethics should be employed to contain and guide feelings, which should neither be improperly vented nor transgress the boundaries of society, politics and ethics. Thus, feelings expressed via poetry are both individual and social.
DETAILED>>According to Confucius（551-479BC）, The Book of Songs served these four purposes, which summarize the basic functions and values of literature. “Stimulation” means that the appreciation of literary works arouses imagination, stimulates reflection on society and life, and inspires aspirations and interests. “Contemplation” means that reading leads to understanding nature, society, life, and politics. “Communication” means that reading encourages discussion with others, and exchange of thoughts and feelings. “Criticism” means learning how to critically express oneself about state affairs and voice inner feelings. These four functions are closely associated and involve the aesthetic, cognitive, and educational functions of literature. Later scholars have continued to make original contributions to the study of these themes.
DETAILED>>To be able to stop war is a true craft of war. This famous military view was first raised by King Zhuang of Chu（？-591 BC） in the Spring and Autumn Period, on the basis of the structure of the Chinese character wu (武). Wu is composed of zhi (止), which means to stop; and ge (戈), which means dagger-axe or weapons and is used here in the metaphorical sense of warfare. To interpret wu as stopping war was consistent with the cultural characteristics of Chinese characters. It also expresses the Chinese people’s thinking of using military means to stop violence and their love of peace and opposition to war.
DETAILED>>This term is used mostly in literary criticism to refer to a vigorous life force, the intensity of language, a burst of literary talent, an overwhelming impact, as well as a powerful appeal to readers’ hearts. It requires the author to maintain a lucid mind, be filled with positivity, have abundant self-cultivation, embrace noble ideals, be unbridled in literary expression, possess a variety of styles, and infuse spiritual strength into his whole work.
DETAILED>>The term means human strength or capability. Strength refers to the power of one person, an organization or a country. Strength represents control or influence one exercises over oneself or something outside oneself. It should not be used as a tool by the strong to threaten the weak; rather, it should be employed in accordance with moral standards and the requirement of virtue. Whenever possible, people should endeavor to overcome obstacles and difficulties to reach goals in keeping with such standards and requirement. However, human strength has its limits; if something is beyond human strength or capability, it should be considered “fate,” and there is no need to pursue it any more.
The term means that one should strive continuously to strengthen himself. Ancient Chinese believed that heavenly bodies move in accordance with their own nature in a vigorous and forever forward-going cycle. A man of virtue, who follows the law of heaven, should be fully motivated and work diligently to strengthen himself. This is the Chinese view on governance and self development, established with reference to the movement of heavenly bodies. Together with the notion that a true gentleman has ample virtue and carries all things, it constitutes the fundamental trait of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>This term originally referred to the general layout of a building. Later, it came to mean the overall framework and plot development of a piece of work of art and literature. In theories about calligraphy, it refers to both the structure of an individual character and the rules and layout of an entire calligraphic work. Strokes of varying lengths and widths, as well as their upward or downward tilts, determine the shape of a character. Therefore, structure is essential to creating a piece of calligraphic art. In theories about poetry and prose writing, it refers to elements of poetic composition such as introduction, the unfolding of a process, transition to another viewpoint and summing up; it is also used to evaluate the structural merits or demerits of an essay. In theories about fiction and drama, this term is used even more widely. The Late Ming to early Qing drama theorist Li Yu (1611-1680) observed in his Occasional Notes with Leisure Motions that structure was like forming a concrete creature – one needs to set up a frame and give it flesh and blood until its facial features and body finally take shape. It was also like building a house – a builder should first of all create a general layout in mind; he was not supposed to change the design in the course of house construction. Li Yu’s theory about structure included items such as a focus on the main characters and events, abandonment of stereotypes in creating a drama, coherence between parts of a drama and elimination of nonessentials. It emphasized the idea that drama was an art of overall designing. Structure is the most suitable term to explain how parts should be combined into an integral whole.
The term means to study common and concrete human affairs and to progress from that to an understanding of higher and more universal truths. Coming from The Analects, it literally means to study human affairs and understand heaven’s will, but is actually advocating a spirit of scholarship and selfcultivation which regards the pursuit of heaven’s will and heaven’s way to be the highest stage of one’s life and lifelong mission. This is to mean that knowing something is to understand its truths, while acting upon something is to know its principles. This concept of scholarship and self-cultivation encourages people not to be satisfied with acquiring a specific object or learning a specific thing; rather, they should progress to acquiring knowledge of fundamental truths or universal rules, and strive for self-perfection or to reach a heightened state of self-awareness. The philosophical basis of this idea is that there is no distinction between dao and objects, and that knowledge and action are one.
DETAILED>>This term refers both to the theories of the diverse group of scholars from the late Spring and Autumn Period to the early Western Han Dynasty, as well as the study of these theories. During those years, scholars engaged in free and in-depth reflection on the collapse of the social order and societal values and came up with diverse theoretical propositions. All of these theories are known as "the study of A Hundred Schools of Thought." The study of A Hundred School of Thought had far-reaching influence on later generations, who researched and elucidated theories of the schools and developed them further. This further development of A Hundred Schools of Thought is also covered by the study of A Hundred School of Thought.
DETAILED>>Learning should contribute to good governance. Jingshi(经世) means governance of the country and society, and zhiyong(致用) refers to meeting practical needs. In the 17th century, thinkers such as Gu Yanwu (1613-1682), Wang Fuzhi (1619-1692), Huang Zongxi (1610-1695), and Li Yong (yóng, 1627-1705) argued that scholarly studies should be geared to meet current needs. They held that while interpreting ancient classics, scholars should expound their views on the social and political issues of their day, solve practical problems, enhance governance of the country, improve people’s livelihood, and promote social reform. This view stressed the practical value of knowledge and the practical responsibilities of intellectuals. It reflects the pragmatic character of traditional Chinese intellectuals as well as their concern for the well-being of the people and eagerness to shoulder responsibility for the whole nation.
The term means to understand how we should conduct ourselves through our contact with things. “Studying things to acquire knowledge” comes from The Great Learning, a section of The Book of Rites. Together with “being sincere in thought,” “rectifying one’s mind,” “cultivating oneself,” “regulating one’s family well,” “governing the state properly,” and “bringing peace to all under heaven,” they are collectively known as the “eight essential principles.” Knowledge is acquired through the study of things. Since the two are closely related, they are sometimes together called “study and acquire.” Throughout history scholars have had varied understandings of the meaning of the term. Some emphasize a thorough inquiry of principles in contact with things. Others stress personal practice in order to master all kinds of moral conduct and skills. Still others consider their intentions as things, thus reforming their innermost thoughts as studying things.
DETAILED>>This is an important term about literary style that stresses the unity and integration of the styles of writings with the temperaments of their authors. The term originated by Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties in his The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. One chapter of the book discusses how the styles of writings are related to the temperaments of the writers, and argues that the writings truly reflect the temperaments of their authors. This has encouraged later generations to analyze different styles of literary works based on the authors’ temperaments and became a basic line of thought on ancient Chinese literary style.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the differentiation of the form and style of a literary work. It means that before putting words on paper, one needs to decide on the form and style appropriate to the thoughts and feelings to be expressed so as to produce a fine literary work with a high degree of harmony between form and content. In creating literary works, ancient scholars tended to decide on the style before writing. Literary critics in the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern dynasties discussed in detail the artistic features and rules of all literary styles and stressed that authors must choose an appropriate form or style to express their thoughts and sentiments and strictly follow the rules of the style, language form, and writing technique required by the chosen form or style. This, they believed, was the only way to create excellent literary works. Contrary to the term “style differentiation,” the term poti (破体) or “breaking-down styles” refers to the integration of different styles or forms of literary works by breaking down their boundaries. Style differentiation sometimes refers to differentiating the form or style of a literary work in order to attain a lofty character and realm of literature.
DETAILED>>Sublimity is the highest state of art. It was an important term in literary criticism in ancient China, similar to the ideas of “the oneness of heaven and humans” and “the miraculous work of nature.” The assertion that “heaven and earth exist in harmony with me and all things in the universe are inseparable from me,” as made in Zhuangzi’s (369?-286 BC) “On Seeing Things as Equal,” marked the beginning of this theory. A work of art with such excellence shows an aesthetic state wherein one basks in a blissful loss of division between him and his surroundings and heaven and man become completely merged. Whether it is a poem or a painting, it is so naturally created that it bears no mark of men’s “carving or chiseling.” The sublime in art occurs when the artist has had more than sufficient accomplishment, profound understanding and artistic technique. He will then be able to suit his actual execution of strokes to his fantasy by making everything at his fingertips work. Such an effect is achieved as if only by nature’s magical hand, not through human effort at all.
The term refers to the use of allegories to convey popular mood and public opinion and make critical comments on state affairs to the ruler in a tactful manner in the hope to persuade him to correct wrong policies. Feng (讽) represents making critical but persuasive comments subtly through poetry or prose; yu (喻) means delivering an explicit message. Such literary writing is intended to be both critical and persuasive; and it has two integral aspects, namely, a subtle literary way of expression as required by feng, and its social function of sending explicit messages to the ruler as required. The theory of subtle admonition was advocated by scholars of the Han Dynasty based on their interpretation of The Book of Songs. Confucian scholars from then on promoted the use of subtle admonition to influence decision-making of the ruler and social mores in a literary way. Bai Juyi（772-846）, a poet of the Tang Dynasty, wrote many such poems, further reinforcing the social function of poetry and advancing this literary tradition, which had great impact on literary creation of later generations.
DETAILED>>This term refers to an inner experience one gains under special circumstances. When the mind is so relaxed and peaceful, it allows one to develop an intimate appreciation and understanding of beauty and then express it in a poem. The beauty of the poem thus inspired transcends words and creates an intense aesthetic experience. Subtle insight enables the reader to appreciate the essence and lasting beauty of a poem by creating a spontaneous experience so engrossing that one becomes oblivious to both himself and the outside world. According to Buddhist, Daoist, and Metaphysical principles, “subtle” refers to the minute and profound nature of thinking, whereas “insight” is an intensely personal experience derived not from logical reasoning. Chan Buddhism promotes meditation as a way to return to the mind’s original tranquility and thus achieve a clear and simple state of mind. Such a state of mind comes from literary and artistic experience. In Canglang’s Criticism of Poetry, literary critic Yan Yu （？-1264）of the Southern Song Dynasty dealt extensively with the function and features of subtle insight in poetry writing by drawing on Chan philosophy. This book is the first one to apply Chan terms to critical writing on poetry and has thus gained great influence. The concept of subtle insight has also influenced traditional painting and calligraphy in China.
DETAILED>>A technique or style in creating literary works, it refers to the use of concise language in portraying a simple artistic image, whose rich feelings and implications are elicited in a subtle manner, so that readers can intuit multiple hidden meanings. One finds a straightforward and factual manner of expression in early literary and artistic works in China, as well as the subtle mode of expression. Because this technique originally evolved from Daoist thought and, in the early period, was employed as a means of criticizing powerful individuals in poetry, it stresses the expression of emotion in a subtly suggestive manner, such that the depiction of images should be supported by a rich undertone or hidden meaning that can appeal to readers. The language should be simple and plain but still leave sufficient room for readers to seize upon hidden meanings. Sikong Tu（837—908）, a literary critic in the Tang Dynasty, listed it as one of the twenty-four styles of poetry writing. Subtle suggestion imparts a high degree of unity to a writer’s cultural attainments, creative technique, as well as his literary style and imagery.
DETAILED>>To be successful in war, the commander must ensure the readiness of his army. While war is fought on the battlefield, there are often non-military factors that determine its outcome, whether victory or defeat. A top commander must consider how to overcome the enemy as a matter of strategy. Sound policies and popular support will ensure strong support for fighting; strict military discipline and swift execution of orders will boost combat capability. Thus, the troops will be unbeatable and prevail over the enemy.
DETAILED>>Writing should be substantive and succinct in expressing main ideas or key content. “Succinctness” means to capture the essence. The idea comes from The Book of History, originally referring to the requirement that government edicts and regulations should be terse and to the point. Liu Xie ( 465 ?- 520 ? or 532 ?) applied this into literary criticism, emphasizing that writing should be both substantive and pithy, striving to capture the essence. This term reflects the traditional pursuit for “succinctness” in Chinese culture, which prefers to convey a rich message in a concise way rather than seek novel expressions that may overshadow the essence of the writing. Later on, this became a fundamental requirement for the classical style of writing and provided important guidance for literary creation.
The term means to save and help all people through upholding truth and justice. Dao (道) here refers to truth and justice, and also to particular thought or doctrine. Ji (济) means relieving or helping people out of difficulties or sufferings. Tianxia (天下) refers to everything under heaven, and particularly all people. Therefore, this phrase contains two meanings. First, the value of any particular Dao depends on whether it serves the interests of the people. Second, people of virtue, and intellectuals in particular, should apply Dao they have learned to serve the people and use the ancient classics they have studied to meet present needs. Much like the idea of “studying ancient classics to meet present needs,” this notion of “supporting all people by upholding truth and justice,” represents the ultimate goal and ideal character of the traditional Chinese intellectuals in their pursuit of knowledge. It also embodies the compassion and moral standards of the traditional Chinese intellectuals as they pursue and uphold truth, care about the livelihood of the people, and take upon themselves the responsibility for the world.
DETAILED>>The term has two meanings. One is the supreme ruler of the universe, also known as the Ruler of Heaven. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, wizards were the intermediaries between humans and the supreme ruler. They asked for his orders by means of divination and conveyed them to humans. The other meaning is the supreme ruler of an empire or dynasty, that is, the emperor or monarch, including those of remote antiquity and those who had died; each was referred to as Son of Heaven. After Christianity was introduced to China, missionaries used this term as a translation of the word “God.”
DETAILED>>The view that ordinary people also share responsibility for the fate of the country originated with the famous late Ming- and early Qing-dynasty thinker Gu Yanwu（1613-1682）. He stated that the ruler and his officials were in charge of the state apparatus, but guarding all under heaven was the responsibility of every individual, no matter how lowly they may be. In pre-modern China, all under heaven referred to the whole territory of China ruled either directly or nominally by the Son of Heaven. By “state” Gu Yanwu, however, meant something entirely different: the state only refers to one imperial house, while “all under heaven” refers to the whole of the Chinese nation and Chinese civilization. The modern Chinese thinker Liang Qichao （1873-1929）built on this idea and put it in more general terms stating that “survival of a nation is the responsibility of every individual,” turning it into a clearer and more forceful statement. It was subsequently quoted by so many statesmen and thinkers that it became a household phrase. Ever since, this saying has had tremendous influence in arousing the patriotic spirit among the people of China and making them assume responsibility for the fate of their country.
DETAILED>>This expression means to ensure a secure livelihood for the people, a requirement for governance proposed by Mencius (372?-289 BC), who believed that if the common people did not have a steady income and could not maintain their survival, they would deviate from moral righteousness in pursuit of survival. Rulers, therefore, must create and provide the necessary means for the common people to maintain their daily lives. “Sustaining the people’s livelihood” is the foundation and prerequisite for rulers who wish to promote the moral edification of the people.
This term can also be translated as “nipping the problem in the bud.” Hidden or inconspicuous things are not easily discovered. But there are always warning signs, indications of something newly emerged, slowly developing. All things evolve from hidden to obvious, from small to big, and in time they may lead to harmful consequences. If early steps are not taken to prevent mistakes and problems and to eliminate any defects in time, it will be costly to deal with the consequences, and even disaster may ensue. Thus, people should gain a deep understanding and good grasp of what underlies the evolution of things.
DETAILED>>Those who do not act excessively may rise to ultimate leadership. Derived from the book Guanzi, this principle echoes the Daoist notion of wuwei (无为), which does not mean taking no action at all, but refraining from taking excessive action. The concept captures the idea of not acting against the natural flow of events; it is a non-assertive approach that respects the inherent momentum of beings and situations. Here, di (帝literally “to become an emperor”) means to reach the peak of success and endeavors. This term carries two implications: Firstly, great success doesn’t necessarily spring from imposing one’s will upon the world. Rather, it often flows from harnessing the evolving dynamics of things. Secondly, those who are in power should exercise governance with restraint rather than exerting excessive control.
DETAILED>>Tale telling was an artistic form of telling stories through talking and singing that originated in the pre-Qin times. By the late years of the Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin period, Buddhists and Daoists started to interpret religious scripts with vernacular language and vivid stories. In the Tang Dynasty, monks used talking and singing to interpret religious doctrines. On the basis of these early attempts, tale telling prospered in the Song Dynasty. It was no longer confined to temples, but became a form of popular entertainment on stages and at marketplaces. It included many subgenres such as histories based on works of authors of the Han to the Tang dynasties, skits with talking and singing, farces, stories of the Three Kingdoms and stories of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. In the Southern Song Dynasty, tale telling covered four subjects: stories told to the accompaniment of a wind instrument, war stories, histories of past dynasties as well as Buddhist allegories and tales about wise thoughts inspired by worshipping at shrines. Tale telling entertainers were good at talking, singing and telling jokes; and drums, gongs and other musical instruments were used to enhance the appeal. Poetic lines were read and an anecdote was told at the beginning of the show, a trick used by performers that drew cheers and applause from early comers and ensured that late arrivals would not miss the main show. Performances would often end with a recitation of other poetic lines. Tale telling was very popular among common folks throughout the Song Dynasty. The scripts thus developed became an important part of old-time vernacular Chinese fiction.
This refers to a person’s ability and attributes. To be specific, it has two meanings. First, it refers to a person’s ability to respond to and handle things. In this regard, such ability differs from person to person. A person may or may not have talent. There are people who have many talents, and there are also those who have one special talent. Second, it refers to one’s attributes one is born with. Attributes of a well-rounded person are close or even equal to that of a person with perfect human nature. People differ in views on whether talent is good or evil, just like their views on human nature.
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What one talks or writes about should have a sound basis and substance; the language and words he uses should fit the actual context. Hyperbole, exaggeration or falsehood should be opposed. In doing anything, one must have perseverance and focus, stick to principle and honor his words. One should preserve until the goal is met and must never give up halfway. This term also means that one should take a realist approach, seek truth and act in good faith.
DETAILED>>This means teaching by one’s deeds as opposed to explaining in words. Originally it referred to a ruler who should not just issue orders and tell people what to do. Rather, he should set an example to his subjects with his own actions as a model of virtue, thereby achieving the goal of good order in society. This has something in common with the principle of “rule by man.” Later it turned into an educational concept: Teachers should not only teach their students by words; they should also, in their own actual conduct, be an example to the students in scholarship and cultivation of virtue, so as to guide them and reach the goal of education. There are well-known sayings in China like “making oneself an example” and “to be a model teacher to others."
DETAILED>>Teachers and students improve each other. The ancient Chinese realized that teaching is not just a matter of teachers influencing students, but a two-way process of mutual interaction. In this process, teachers and students continuously make their own progress and improvements. It embodies the view that both teachers and students can benefit from their interactions, which is quite similar to the views of modern education.
DETAILED>>This term expresses the idea that giving away a fish is not as good as teaching one how to fish. The meaning is that rather than giving something away it is better to teach the method of obtaining it so that people can get what they need through their own efforts. It implies that once an objective is established, the method of achieving it becomes most important, and that the effective way of helping and managing people in the long term is to encourage them to be self-supporting.
DETAILED>>Temple titles (miaohao 庙号) were accorded to deceased emperors for use at ancestral sacrifices. This practice is believed to have originated in the Shang Dynasty. The last character of such names were customarily zu (祖 progenitor) or zong (宗 ancestor). The temple names were given according to strict rules. Those with great achievements would have names ending with zu and those of high virtue would have zong. For instance, the founder of a dynasty could be named taizu (太祖) or taizong (太宗), and someone with outstanding achievements might be named gaozu (高祖) or gaozong (高宗). Like the bestowal of posthumous names to emperors, the use of temple titles was an important political tradition in Chinese culture. By honoring past emperors, they provided a standard for later generations of rulers to follow. Due to Chinese influence, Korea and Vietnam used to follow this practice.
DETAILED>>This term has two meanings. First, it means words, sentences, paragraphs, or an entire text. In his literary critique, The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties discussed the general principles and rules governing the wording, syntax, paragraphs arrangement and text composition in writing. While stressing the importance of writing for a worthy goal, he also called for meticulous depiction in terms of wording and textual composition. This provided a source of inspiration to writers of later generations to improve grammar, practice literary criticism and launch theoretical discussions on writing. Second, this term also means an ancient annotative work showing how to divide a text into paragraphs and analyze syntax. Such works discuss paragraph arrangement in the Confucian classics, explain the meanings of words and expressions, and offer a general interpretation of the text. Typical examples are Annotations on the Odes of Chu by Wang Yi of the Eastern Han Dynasty, as well as Annotations on The Great Learning and Annotations on The Doctrine of the Mean by Zhu Xi (1130-1200) of the Southern Song Dynasty.
DETAILED>>“The qi(vital force) of heaven and earth” denotes the two types of qi, an element that constitutes all things corporeal and flows between heaven and earth. Both shapeless, the qi of earth and the qi of heaven respectively possess the opposite attributes of yin and yang. Their movement follows the law of the change of yin and yang. The interaction between the two types of qi leads to the day-and-night cycle, the succession of the seasons, and the occurrence of such heavenly phenomena as wind, rain, thunder, and lightning. The interaction also determines how all the things are generated and changed.
DETAILED>>“The qi (vital force) of yin and yang” refers to the two types of qi – an element that constitutes all things corporeal. With opposite attributes, the qi of yin and qi of yang interact with each other in accordance with certain laws. Such interaction is a catalyst for the generation and changing of all things. In addition, the circulation of the two types of qi may actualize mutual perception and influence between the things.
DETAILED>>This term means choosing to be useless to realize the preservation of life. Originating in Zhuangzi, choosing to appear useless is a way advocated by Zhuangzi (369?-286BC) for preserving one’s life. He said that very able people are often required to shoulder many responsibilities, which will result in greater difficulties and dangers harmful to their physical and mental health. Zhuangzi concluded that only by giving up the desire to advance or become useful, showing instead how useless one is, can one avoid the perils of the human world and therefore preserve one’s life.
DETAILED>>This saying comes from The Book of Changes. “The alternation of yin and yang”indicates the existence of both yin and yang, a pair of opposites that lie in all things between heaven and earth, including human affairs. Their alternation and interaction lead to the changes of things. Such changes so caused are called the Way. Furthermore, the sixty-four hexagrams in The Book of Changes symbolize all things between heaven and earth and embody the Way of the alternation of yin and yang through combination of the two yaos (the unbroken line standing for yang and the broken line for yin).
DETAILED>>This refers to the workings of the mind or heart, a term which first appeared in such classics as Guanzi, Xunzi, and The Book of Rites. In ancient times it was believed that a person’s mind or heart played out its role in accordance with certain laws, which were referred to with this term. Nevertheless, different schools of thought had their own views on what it was about. The term also relates to how the human heart directs the movement of the five sensory organs, and with the way one communicates, and identifies oneself with the outside world.
DETAILED>>The one who is benevolent is invincible. The benevolent refers to a ruler who has the virtue of benevolence or to a state with benevolent rule. In terms of political affairs, benevolence manifests itself as benevolent governance based on love and care for the people, use of penalties with restraint, lighter taxes, and benefiting the people to the greatest extent possible. In this way, the ruler will gain the support of the people and achieve unshakeable unity of will among his subjects and himself, so that the state will be invincible. The underlying principle is that a state’s source of strength lies in winning the hearts and minds of its people; if only the people are cared for, will the state be able to draw strength from this source.
Foiling the enemy’s strategy is an important principle proposed by Sunzi the ancient military strategist. In his view, war is waged at different levels, all of which have a significant impact on the outcome. Armed attacks will do great damage to both sides, so they should be avoided if at all possible. Those who are good at leading armies should be able to use stratagems to eliminate the threat of enemy attack in advance or clear the obstacles to their own armed forces to achieve their strategic goals at minimal cost.
DETAILED>>A physician must have a caring heart. This essential spirit has existed since ancient times. In the chapter “On the Skill and Sincerity of a Master Physician” of his work Essential Formulas for Emergencies, the famous Tang Dynasty physician Sun Simiao (581-682) discussed how a physician should have a compassionate heart, that is, a caring heart. A physician is expected to have great love, a sense of empathy and a desire to relieve suffering; he must disregard personal interests and focus entirely on treating the sick. In so doing, the physician becomes a “master physician to all the people,” a great physician held in high esteem by all the people. This expression can be considered a classic expression of the humanist spirit of Chinese medicine.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the most influential school of poetic criticism of the mid-Qing Dynasty named after its leader Zhang Huiyan（1761-1802), a scholar from Changzhou. He compiled the Anthology of Ci, containing 116 ci poems by 44 poets from the Tang, the Five Dynasties, and the Song periods. His aesthetic criteria for ci poetry included portraying rich emotional content in concise language, and the painting of mood and feeling through subtle associations beyond the words themselves. Thanks to his commentaries, the literary status of the ci form was considerably elevated. Zhou Ji (1781-1839), who came after Zhang, not only continued in the same practice and theory but also expanded on his ideas and compiled the Selected Poems of Four Poets of the Song Dynasty. Zhou proposed a number of theories about writing ci: for beginners, to acquire the technique of ci writing, it is essential to learn to express their feelings through material references; but to achieve the true depth of the form, material references must not be contrived, and the emotions they represent should both infer yet transcend them. Another theory was “blending.” Tan Xian (1832-1901), Chen Tingzhuo (1853-1892), Kuang Zhouyi (1859-1926) were the third generation of this literary school. Their works Writings on Ci by Futang, Remarks on Ci Poetry from White Rain Studio, Notes and Commentaries on Ci by Huifeng further enriched and refined the art of writing and critiquing ci poetry. The most important contribution of the Changzhou School was to demonstrate from a theoretical angle the value of the ci form in expressing philosophical thoughts as well as ambitions and aspirations. This placed it on a par with other classical poetic forms.
DETAILED>>Shengxiao (生肖) in Chinese refers to the twelve animals that make up the Chinese Zodiac. The ancient Chinese included in this list eleven animals closely associated with farming, plus the dragon, a legendary animal which has cultural symbolic meaning in China. They were then associated with the twelve Earthly Branches (in a twelve-year cycle) to each represent a year. Thus a person’s year of birth is also associated with a specific animal. Combining the Zodiac with the Branches produces the following order: zishu (子鼠rat), chouniu (丑牛ox), yinhu (寅虎tiger), maotu (卯兔rabbit), chenlong (辰龙dragon), sishe (巳蛇snake), wuma (午马horse), weiyang (未羊sheep), shenhou (申猴monkey), youji (酉鸡rooster), xugou (戌狗dog), and haizhu (亥猪pig). The Zodiac had already entered into use by the Eastern Han Dynasty, and has been a distinctive feature of Chinese culture and folk tradition ever since. Today, the influence of the Chinese Zodiac culture can still be found in the tradition of a person’s animal birth year, marriage and fortune-telling, during festivals and in folk arts, like paper-cutting.
DETAILED>>The classical style of Chinese writing known as guwen (classical prose) which was promoted by Han Yu (768-824) revived the literary style in decline during the previous eight dynasties (Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Song, Qi, Liang, Chen, and Sui); and Confucianism he promoted lifted the people out of mental plight caused by their blind faith in Buddhism and Daoism. This is the conclusion made by Su Shi (1037-1101) of the Han Yu-led movement to return to classical prose as well as his affirmation of literary principles such as “writing aims to express ideas and reflect real life,” and “writing is the vehicle of ideas.” While speaking highly of Han Yu’s emphasis on Confucianism, Su Shi also stressed literature’s importance in governance of the country and society. It is a rebuttal of the formal and excessively rhetorical literary style that had prevailed since the Wei and Jin dynasties, which focused on rhetoric, couplets, rhyme, and allusion and was devoid of ideas. Han Yu sought to both reform the literary style and revive Confucianism; he also advocated the creation of literary works that were rich in content and free in form. According to Su Shi, Han Yu corrected the formalistic literary style of the eight dynasties but did not totally deny the beauty of style. He tried to lift people out of mental plight with Confucianism but did not completely reject Buddhism and Daoism. Su Shi sought to strike a balance between the style and content of writing, believing that form should be conducive to the expression of ideas, and that content should deliver a positive message and delight readers.
DETAILED>>This is one of the guiding principles in the implementation of the Zhou rites, as was recorded in The Book of Rites, a Confucian classic. The rituals were so cumbersome at the time that even the nobility found it difficult to observe them strictly. The commoners, mostly poor and busy earning their livelihood, were incapable of affording the money and energy needed to fulfill the numerous ceremonial requirements. Therefore, it was stipulated that observation of the rites not be mandatory for common people. It was only used to inspire them towards self-improvement. Although the Zhou rites had long since become history, the spirit of benevolence and tolerance shown in this principle was upheld in the ages that followed.
DETAILED>>The cycle of five elements that repeatedly follow each other in fixed succession is a belief that interpreted the rise and fall of dynasties and political changes. It was propounded by Zou Yan (305?-240 BC), a thinker of the Warring States Period. The five elements are metal, wood, water, fire and earth; they are also known as the five virtues that appear in cyclical repetition. Zou Yan believed changes in human history were similar to those of the natural world and were controlled by these five physical elements. The birth of each new dynasty represented the rise of a certain “virtue.” What drove dynastic transitions and political changes was the recurrence of the five elements as they generated or overcame each other. This view of political virtue and cyclical history with its roots in yin and yang and the five elements has, from its inception, had a very strong influence on traditional Chinese culture.
DETAILED>>Emperor Yan (the Fiery Emperor) and Emperor Huang (the Yellow Emperor), legendary Chinese rulers in pre-dynastic times, were actually tribal leaders. Emperor Yan, whose family name was Jiang, was known as Shennongshi while Emperor Huang, whose family name was Gongsun, was known as Xuanyuanshi. They originally lived in central China where their tribes gradually merged with those in eastern and southern China. People in these tribes proliferated and made up the main body of the Chinese nation (who were referred to as the Han people after the Han Dynasty and Tang people after the Tang Dynasty). Hence, they have been revered as the ancestors of the Chinese nation. Their tribes, and the tribe headed by the Yellow Emperor in particular, achieved the highest level of civilization. Many important cultural advancements and technical innovations in ancient China were believed to be created by these two tribes. They have therefore been seen as the forefathers of the Chinese civilization. In modern times, they have been considered as symbols of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. Today, Chinese descendants residing in different parts of the world proudly regard themselves as “descendants of the Fiery Emperor and the Yellow Emperor” or simply “descendants of the Yellow Emperor.” In this regard, “Yan and Huang” have become cultural symbols of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>Also known as the five human relationships, these refer to the relationships between father and son, between monarch and minister, between husband and wife, between siblings, and between friends. Ancient Chinese people believed that these were the most basic relationships between people. Each relationship had to follow the corresponding norms, namely, between father and son, there should be affection; between sovereign and minister, righteousness; between husband and wife, attention to their separate roles; between siblings, a proper order; and between friends, honor and trust. It was held that balancing these five relationships was the basis for governing the country and society, and that they showed Chinese culture as people-orientated, with an emphasis on good order.
DETAILED>>This refers to the concept of the five elements sequentially overpowering each other, which is also described as “the five elements, each in turn checking the next”. The term “five elements” refers to five basic material elements, namely: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. According to this concept, water checks fire, fire checks metal; metal checks wood; wood checks earth; and earth checks water. Similarly, things with the properties of these five elements also have corresponding relations between themselves. For example, some thinkers in the Qin and Han dynasties adopted this theory to explain dynastic changes.
This refers to the concept of the five basic elements, each in turn giving rise to the next. The five basic elements are: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. All things in the world are composed of these five elements or possess their properties. According to this concept, wood produces fire; fire produces earth; earth produces metal; metal produces water; and water produces wood. Similarly, things with the properties of these five elements also have similar relations between themselves.
The term refers to the five musical notes that rise in pitch, from gong (宫),shang (商),jue (角),zhi (徵),to yu (羽), which correspond roughly to the notes of 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 in today's numbered musical notation. When a zhi minus is placed before zhi and a gong plus after yu, this pentatonic scale becomes heptatonic. Such division of the musical notes gives rise to a variety of tunes. Although Chinese classical music based on a five-note scale does not vary that much, it retains the beauty of a simple, quiet, and lyrical style. As ancient refined music and folksongs were mostly based on a five-note scale, this term often referred to music in general.
DETAILED>>Changes in trends or situations arise from the clashes and stimuli of factors and forces. This was an explanation of history proposed by the famous ancient Chinese historian Sima Qian (145 or 135?-? BC). “Events” were the basic trends or situations in the world; their “flow” was how they changed over time like flowing rivers. Sima Qian felt that while history was composed of the stories of people, it could not be changed by the will of any one person or persons. Rather, the outcome of the flow of events was basically determined by the clash or stimulus of various factors and forces involved in the process. This embodies ideas of the convergence and interaction of historical forces.
DETAILED>>This famous ancient Chinese fable from Liezi extols perseverance, determination and eagerness to surmount difficulty. Two huge mountains lay directly in front of the Foolish Old Man’s house. The Foolish Old Man, who was almost ninety years old, had to take a long detour whenever he went out. To get rid of this inconvenience, he led his sons and grandsons in chipping away at the mountains year after year. They would not give up despite jeers of the Wise Old Man, and eventually moved God, who sent heavenly spirits to move the mountains away. Originally, this fable pondered the relationship between foolishness and wisdom, the finite and the infinite, the forces of humans and the forces of nature as well as the relationship between the way of humans and the way of heaven. Since the Tang and Song dynasties, however, its underlying message about courage and perseverance in the face of challenge and adversity has gained increasing appreciation. Since then, the “Foolish Old Man Who Moved the Mountains” has become a synonym for forging ahead in the face of difficulties and persevering to the very end.
DETAILED>>This refers to the fundamental oracular calculation. The term “fundamental calculation,” which is from The Book of Changes, refers to the procedure for creating hexagrams by using fifty yarrow stalks. The diviner would repeatedly combine and separate groups of yarrow stalks according to a set of rules. The changes in the numbers of the stalks were used to ascertain the yin and yang, namely, the negative and positive, characteristics of each trigram, and the trigrams were in turn used to form a hexagram. This method of calculation was believed to represent the process through which everything was created and evolved, and it was used to explore and understand the rules which govern changes and their underlying trends.
DETAILED>>This concept means that the fundamental principle known as Dao (the Way) should be pure and consistent. This was allegedly the view of Confucius (551–479BC), as stated in the classic Zhuangzi. In the name of Confucius, Zhuangzi (369?-286BC) states that if the fundamental principle admits a mixture of ideas, there will be divergence, interference, conflict and confusion among them, and this will lead to great chaos. As it applies to governance of the state, this concept emphasizes the importance of purity and consistency of the guiding thought. It is similar to the concept that great truth is expressed in simple words.
DETAILED>>This was a literary school represented by three brothers, namely Yuan Zongdao (1560-1600), Yuan Hongdao (1568-1610) and Yuan Zhongdao (1570-1626), who lived in Gong’an, Hubei Province, in late Ming times. Of the trio, Yuan Hongdao was the most accomplished and renowned. Next was Yuan Zhongdao, who in turn outshined his brother Yuan Zongdao. They advocated giving full expression to one’s true feelings and so opposed some early-Ming men of letters’ soulless emulation of ancient literature. They also advocated genuine interest or concern as the criterion for literary criticism, stating that writing should flow forth from one’s heart and not be constrained by particular regulations and formulae. Putting their efforts mainly in prose and poetry, they paid particular attention to writing in a leisurely and carefree mood. The Gong’an School accepted and appreciated folk literature and stressed the need for writers to draw sustenance from vernacular literature. This attitude reflected to some degree the aesthetic tastes of the newly-emerging urban middle class during the mid-Ming period.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the final part of a drama. It contains a requirement as to how a dramatic or operatic performance should end; i.e., a natural and reasonable rather than stiff outcome of the characters and events in a play, making it possible for the audience to experience the pleasure of a complete plot with both calls and echoes, expansion and withdrawal, a start and an end, a cause and an effect, and a transformation from tension to relief and from expectation to satisfaction. In a word, a good conclusion should feature "a happy outcome for all" as Li Yu (1611-1680), the late Ming to early Qing drama theorist, said. This means not only the reunion of a family after a period of separation or the wedding of a loving couple, but also the completion of a play's circuitous structure. The final part of a play is the last step taken to close that circuit and reach a climax.
This refers to the Grand Rules, i.e., the fundamental universal laws that all people follow in their life. The term first appeared in The Book of History. Composed of the Nine Great Rules, it divided human life into different areas, laid down the most important elements in each area, hence the basic order that determines the relations between heaven and earth, ethics and politics, and nature and mankind. Ancient people believed that the Nine Great Rules in the Grand Rules were bestowed by Heaven with irresistible authority.
The Great Wall, also known as the “10, 000-li (5, 000 kilometer) long Great Wall,” was a complete defensive system consisting of walls, watchtowers, gated passes, and beacon towers. After unifying China in the 3rd century BC, the Qin Dynasty sought to ward off southward incursions of the northern nomadic tribes known as the Xiongnu by linking up and fortifying sections of the defense walls which had been built by the feudal states of Yan, Zhao, and Qin during the Warring States Period that had just ended. Extending about 10, 000 li, the Great Wall wound its way from Lintao in the west (present-day Minxian County, Gansu Province) to Liaodong in the east (present-day Liaoning Province). Later dynasties including the Western and Eastern Han, the Northern Dynasties, and the Sui Dynasty all added sections to the Great Wall in places abutting on northern nomadic tribal areas. The Ming Dynasty was the last Chinese dynasty to engage in extensive construction of the Great Wall, which was rebuilt 18 times between the reigns of emperors Hongwu（1368-1398） and Wanli（1573-1620）. A great part of the Great Wall that still stands today is from the Ming Dynasty. The Ming Great Wall extends from the Jiayu Pass in the west to the Shanhai Pass in the east, with a total length of 8851.8 km. The Great Wall is the greatest defense work built in ancient China. Later the term a “great wall” or a “10, 000-li long great wall” often alludes to a person or a group of people who are a bulwark of the country. This term is also a symbol of fortitude and unity of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>The greatest trust includes but is not limited to pledges. Ancient Chinese believed that trust is a person standing by their word. To act in good faith is a basic requirement for a person to become fully human. Trust is essential for an agreement or a pledge. An agreement is only a representation of trust. Without trust, an agreement is just a piece of paper. An agreement is meaningful only when parties concerned have trust. This concept stresses the importance of the spirit of good faith.
DETAILED>>This term means the happiness and contentment of Confucius(551-479 BC) and Yan Hui(a disciple of Confucius, 521-481 BC). The happiness of Confucius and Yan Hui is a mental outlook admired and advocated by Confucian scholars, especially by Song and Ming Neo-Confucianists. Most people do not want to put up with poverty, but poor material conditions could not keep Confucius and Yan Hui from maintaining a happy state of mind. The expression “Happiness of Confucius and Yan Hui” embodies an inner joy and happiness obtained from the transcending of material desires and from the profound understanding and quest for principles of heaven and ethical principles.
The highest level of sincerity never ceases. According to Confucianism, the “highest level of sincerity” is the prerequisite for “the development of one’s innate nature to the fullest extent.” Only a person of complete sincerity can thoroughly understand and give full play to the development of the inherent nature or essential attributes of oneself, other people, and the myriad things so as to reach the realm of perfection. This is an ongoing process of persistent effort. In this process, all people and the myriad things can achieve their own fulfillment.
DETAILED>>Readers of poetry create images and scenes in their minds based on what they are reading. These are the readers’ imaginations based on what is depicted in the poems. The term comes from Daoist theories about the relationships between discourses, ideas or meanings, and images that symbolize profound meaning in The Book of Changes. From the Wei, Jin to the Tang Dynasty, poetry critics sought “the image beyond an image, the scene beyond a scene” in order to pursue the spiritual implications and the beauty of images that are beyond textual descriptions. This term gives expression to the artistic and aesthetic tastes and ideals of the Chinese nation.
DETAILED>>This is the system in which officials were selected through different levels of examinations. After Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty（541-604）reunified China in 581, he abolished the system of selecting officials on the basis of family background or moral character. In 605, the first year of the reign of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty（569-618）, the system to select officials through imperial civil examinations was officially established. From then on, examination subjects, content, and recruitment standards varied from dynasty to dynasty. The jinshi exam was the most difficult of imperial civil examinations,and was always the most revered by scholars. Since the Yuan and Ming dynasties, examination content had been based on the Four Books and the Five Classics and had to be answered in the form of the stereotyped “eight-part” essay and refer to Commentaries on the Four Books and other classics. In 1905 Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty （1871-1908）issued an edict abolishing the imperial civil examination system. For 1,300 years since the Sui Dynasty, the imperial civil examination system was the main method for selecting officials, which had a broad and profound influence on Chinese society. It hastened the transformation of aristocracy-based politics to bureaucracy-based politics and had multiple functions such as educating people, selecting officials, choosing talent through examinations, social stratification, and carrying forward the traditional culture.
DETAILED>>The Jian’an literary style, also known as the Han–Wei literary style, refers to theliterary style from the Jian’an era (196–220) of the Han Dynasty to the early Northern Wei Dynasty, featuring powerful expression of passion, anxiety, and indignation. The final years of the Han Dynasty saw political turmoil, incessant wars, and displacement of people. Leading literary figures like Cao Cao (155-220), Cao Pi (187-226), and Cao Zhi (192-232), Kong Rong (153-208), Chen Lin (?-217), Wang Can (177-217), Xu Gan (171-218), Ruan Yu (165?-212), Ying Yang (?-217), and Liu Zhen (?-217), as well as female poet Cai Yan, inherited the realistic tradition of the folksongs of the Han Dynasty. In their writings, they dealt with subjects such as social upheaval, the suffering of the people, and the aspiration of individuals, expressing their creative spirit and resolve to pursue a noble cause. Their works demonstrate strength, courage and determination to overcome great odds. With a melancholy and powerful style that was magnificent, unique, and distinctive of its age, Jian’an literature emerged as a unique genre and came to be viewed by later generations as an outstanding literary style, with Jian’an poetry particularly highly regarded.
DETAILED>>The Jiangxi School of Poetry was the first school of poetry and prose with a formal name in Chinese literary history. It took as its core tenets the notions of “turning a crude poem or essay into a literary gem” and “squeezing new life out of an old sponge,” as proposed by Huang Tingjian (1045-1105), a Southern Song Dynasty poet from Jiangxi Province. Members of that school devoted themselves to writing poetry with themes about scholarly life. They championed a vigorously “thin and stiff” style, stressed drawing on the skillful wording or remarkable ideas of their predecessors, and paid close attention to the techniques of writing to ensure that each word used in poetic composition can be traced to its origin. Huang’s notions differed from Tang Dynasty poets’ pursuit of impromptu inspiration, elegant subtlety of inspiring imagery as well as vim and vigor in poetic creation. The Jiangxi School’s influence spread across the poetic community of the Southern Song Dynasty, affecting even early modern-day poetic creation.
DETAILED>>This was a school of literary creation in the late Ming Dynasty represented by Zhong Xing (1574-1624) and Tan Yuanchun (1586-1637), who were both natives of Jingling (today’s Tianmen, Hubei Province). It was also known as the Zhong-Tan School. Like members of the Gong’an School of Literary Writing, the Jingling School valued the showing of a writer’s true feelings and character and opposed stubborn emulation of ancient literature. However, they regarded works of the Gong’an School represented by Yuan Hongdao (1568-1610) as slangy and shallow. They advocated a serene and solitary style, arguing that literary creation should express the “inner self.” But in fact, such an “inner self” pursues only novelty, abstruseness, and aloofness from ordinary mortals. The Jingling School paid excessive attention to wording, trying to create an atmosphere of solitude and profundity. Members of the school contributed to the resistance of stubborn emulation of ancient literature and the emergence of many refined, informal essays. However, the limitation of subject matter and abstruseness of language restrained their further development.
DETAILED>>This refers to the joy Ouyang Xiu ( 1007-1072 ), a Northern Song scholar, found when casting his thoughts to nature, so as to dispel his gloom. This concept was proposed in his essay “The Old Drunkard Pavilion.” Zuiweng (醉翁), literally “old drunkard,”was Ouyang Xiu’s alias. A supporter of Fan Zhongyan’s (989-1052) political reforms, or “new deal” in the Qingli period, Ouyang Xiu offended the powerful figures in the imperial court, who framed him with baseless accusations, and he was consequently demoted to a magistrate of Chuzhou Prefecture. Suffering such a political setback in his prime, Ouyang Xiu was despondent and depressed. Hence he took frequent outings and excursions to indulge in the natural environment of mountains and rivers, often intoxicated with drink while sharing his joys with the common folks. The joy of the old drunkard thus refers to his way of deriving pleasure from nature. It also connotes a sense of bitterness due to his demotion.
Sanmei (三昧) originates from the Sanskrit word samādhi, meaning “the mental state of being firmly fixed on a single object” or “meditative absorption.” Samadhi used to be Buddhism’s important way to engage in self-cultivation. Later, it took on the meaning of “the gist or true essence of things.” This Sinicized phrase thus made its way into the fields of poetry, painting, and calligraphy and began to be used in the sense of a “knack,” a “trick” or a “secret.” The whole term, “the key to poetic creation,” was first put forward by the Southern Song poet Lu You (1125-1210) in his poem “Poetic Lines Scribbled Down on the Night of the First Day of the Ninth Lunar Month.” Over time, it became used to refer to a burst of inspiration, with words pouring forth like the flow of a spring, in poetic creation. In that poem, Lu You describes how his initial effort to learn to write poetry failed in his youth and how life in the army at Nanzheng, hectic, vibrant, and exciting as it was, thoroughly changed his poetic style and brought forth great ideas. The way Lu You wrote poetry shows that poetry has its origins in life. The inspiration of poetic creation can be drawn solely from the creative activity of reflecting and portraying life through poetry.
DETAILED>>The “largest one”and the“smallest one” are concepts proposed by Hui Shi (370?-310?BC). He called that which is so large that it encompasses everything the“largest one,”and that which is so small that it is no longer divisible the“smallest one.”This is an acknowledgement that there are limits to the largeness and smallness of things, and a denial that there are infinite spatial sizes. On the other hand, regardless of whether it is the largest or smallest in size, each is a“one,”which hints at the idea that size is relative.
DETAILED>>The law treats everybody equally, not favoring the rich and powerful. The Legalists in ancient China argued that there should be no distinction between noble and poor or close and distant people; punishment or reward should be meted out strictly in accordance with the law. They believed in fairness in enforcing the law and treating everyone as equal before the law. This belief has been championed through the ages and is a major source of the notion of rule of law.
DETAILED>>The law is just for all and it must be the common standard for all behavior. Since the character 法 (law) came into existence, it has included the meaning “leveled as even as water,” while ping (平) means being just, fair, and it also refers to common guidelines for all. Once a law is established, it applies equally to all. Any deviant or improper implementation will undermine its basic function so that it loses its true meaning. Without standards to guide human behavior, society will fall into disarray. This concept of judicial fairness has been commonly upheld by the Chinese since ancient times.
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Laws should be respected by the sovereign ruler and people equally. This means that once a law is promulgated, everyone, regardless of status or wealth, has to abide by it; even the supreme ruler of the state cannot make changes at will. This notion can be seen as an extension of the ancient Legalist idea that “the law does not favor the rich and powerful.” It emphasizes not just the inflexibility and equality of the law; the law supersedes power and politics.
This term means the laws that determine the physical features of plains, mountains and rivers. The term is from The Book of Changes, and it means that the uneven topography of the land, and the direction of rivers and mountains are all determined by certain constant laws. The ancient Chinese believed that both human relationships and all things in the universe are governed by the same laws, and so by observing and following these laws, people can establish social order. In later ages, the term came to cover production, transportation, human settlement and the economic activities affected by the natural environment.
DETAILED>>This term, which comes fromThe Book of Changes,refers to the laws governing the movements of constellations and the change of weather. The termtianwen(天文)means the constant laws that govern the movements of celestial bodies, the rotation of the four seasons, the succession of day and night, and the change of weather. The ancient Chinese believed that both human relationships and all things in the universe are governed by the same laws, and so by observing and following the laws of constellations and seasons, people can establish social order.
This metaphor is used to describe anybody or anything that is very beautiful both internally and externally. It's a term used in ancient times to critique individuals and literary works. It applies to an intellectually brilliant and morally upright person, or to a piece of prose or poetry beautiful in wording and rich in thought. A person with the look of gold and the texture of jade is a truly exceptional character. Prose and poetry comparable to gold and jade are literary works of the highest class.
DETAILED>>These were the eight outstanding artists active in the Yangzhou area during Qing Emperors Kangxi's(1662-1722) and Qianlong's(1736-1795) reigns. They boasted unique personalities and magical styles of painting. Their names are: Wang Shishen (1686-1762?), Li Shan (1686-1762), Jin Nong (1687-1763), Huang Shen (1687-1768?), Gao Xiang (1688-1753), Zheng Xie (1693-1765), Li Fangying (1695-1754) and Luo Pin (1733-1799) (a slightly different list of names also exists). They were mostly officials who had fallen from favor or scholars who had failed to accomplish what they aspired to achieve, and therefore found an outlet for their pent-up anger through painting and calligraphy. Disdaining conventional ways of painting, they created novel styles of their own, breaking new ground in the fields of calligraphy-in-painting, pure calligraphy, and seal cutting. For their unique accomplishments, they were called "wayward geniuses" and "weirdoes" by their contemporaries. Their more honorable title was "The Magical Eight Painters of Yangzhou." They exerted a profound influence on modern period painters such as Qi Baishi (1864-1957) and Chen Shizeng (1876-1923).
Referring to the heart and the sensory organs, this term was used by Mencius (372?-289 BC）to differentiate between men of virtue and petty men. Sensory organs such as the ears and eyes are called “minor organs” because they lack a capacity for thought and for cognition, and are hence easily directed by externalities when they come into contact with the latter. If a man were to only rely on his “minor organs,” he would be a captive of material desires and therefore become a petty man. The heart is the “major organ” which is naturally endowed with the capacity for thought and cognition. If a man is able to establish a dominant role for his “major organ,” then through the actions of his heart, he will be able to continually increase its inherent goodness and not have his judgment clouded by material desires, and thereby become a man of virtue.
DETAILED>>Writing is done mainly to convey a meaning. Here, yi(意) refers to what an article is essentially about. This is an important theoretic notion in ancient Chinese literary theory. It was often emphasized in essays of the Song, Jin, Yuan and Ming dynasties and accepted by scholars of later generations. According to this theory, the meaning is weightier than the rhetoric; it should always be put first. The theory is closely associated with the ideas of writing to illuminate ideas and writing to convey ideas first raised by Tang and Song scholars. It continues the fine literary theoretical tradition of ancient China. However, the word yi covers far wider implications than dao(道) or truth.
The Middle Way manifests the principle of impartiality. It stands in contrast to partial behavior. Ancient Chinese believed that the existence and changes of all things in the universe obey a single basic law, which is shown through human action and conduct. This is the Middle Way. People should comply with the Middle Way in both speech and action. It can be achieved, Confucian scholars hold, by avoiding all excessive as well as inadequate words and actions, thus attaining impeccable morality. Buddhists advocate practicing the Middle Way in order to see things in their true light and break free of human suffering. Different schools of thought and religious sects vary in their understanding of the specific content of this concept.
The strength of an army derives from popular support. Ancient Chinese philosophers did not measure the combat effectiveness of the armed forces purely from the perspective of the military, but stressed the integration of the military and people, as well as the integration of the military and government. This is in line with reality, because the people are the source of the military, and also provide other resources needed for war, such as manpower and material and financial support; there is an interrelation between the people’s strength and military strength, between popular sentiment and military mood, and between popular support and military morale, with the former being the basis of the latter. This is the concrete embodiment of people-oriented thinking. In On Protracted War, Mao Zedong drew upon this concept when he wrote, “The richest source of power for waging war lies in the people.”
DETAILED>>This refers to popular folk music in history, as opposed to formal ceremonial music. The term, originally “the music of Zheng and Wei,” referred to music from the states of Zheng and Wei during the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods. Unlike stately, grand and highly structured classical music, the music of Zheng featured free-flowing melodies and a wealth of variations, with lyrics that often spoke of the love between men and women. Confucius （551-479 BC） felt that works of this sort gave free rein to personal emotions and lacked purity in ways of thinking, that they were not conducive to educating people through etiquette and music, and should therefore not be permitted. Many scholars subsequently used “the music of Zheng” to refer to lowbrow arts, but others considered these tunes to be folk songs which were a form of popular culture, a source of artistic creation and a complement to highbrow arts.
The original meaning of su (素) is undyed natural colored silk. Pu (朴) refers to unprocessed wood. The extended meaning of the term is humans or anything that is in a basic, natural state or condition. The opposite is anything that is artificially altered or interfered with. Scholars of the Daoist school held that a ruler should protect the natural state of his subjects through non-action and avoid interfering too much with their lives. However, scholars of other schools maintained that the natural state of both humans and objects must be changed and molded in order to be of use.
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term has a two-fold meaning. Firstly, it refers to the need to rid an essay of
banal wording. Secondly, it encourages authors to discard mediocre, derivative
ideas when writing. It is a term raised by the Tang Dynasty man of letters Han
Yu (768-824) about prose writing. Han emphasized that essays should be written
in an innovative way. He guarded against stereotyped expression and argument
and opposed any rigid convention. This view echoed the idea of "writing to convey
Dao" put forward by Han Yu during the Classical Prose Movement he led, a
movement which aimed to abandon rhythmical prose
characterized by parallelism and ornateness in favor of ancient prose of
the Han Dynasty.
The Northern and Southern schools represent two distinctive styles of ancient Chinese calligraphy. Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) and Zhao Mengjian (1199-1267) of the Song Dynasty, and Chen Yixi (1648-1709) and He Zhuo (1661-1722) of the Qing explored the differences of these two styles. Later, Ruan Yuan (1764-1849), also of the Qing Period, addressed this issue with clarity and at depth in his “On the Southern and Northern Styles of Calligraphy.” In his view, both styles originated with Zhong Yao (151-230, from late Han to the early Three Kingdoms Period) and Wei Guan (220-291, the Three Kingdoms Period), while Suo Jing (239-303, the Western Jin Dynasty) was the founder of the northern style. The Northern School features calligraphic inscriptions on stones, which displays a primitive simplicity of the official script of the Han Dynasty. The southern style, on the other hand, is mostly found on paper and, rather than following the seal script of the Qin or the clerical script of the Han, adopts the regular script of the late Han, the semi-cursive script of the Western Jin or the cursive script increasingly popular over a much longer period of time. It is charming and beautiful.
The term has three meanings. First, it indicates the original essence of all things. It is another name for dao (way). It is also referred to as taiyi (the supreme one). Second, it refers to the state of chaos before the separation of heaven and earth. The one was divided and transformed into heaven and earth. All things in heaven and on earth were produced from this Chaotic entity. Third, it indicates the unity of things, as opposed to “many” or “two.” The idea is to emphasize the unity among things which are different or opposite.
DETAILED>>The motion of Dao is to transform into the opposite or return to the original state. This concept was proposed by Laozi. Laozi believed that Dao is the fundamental rule of motion and change of things. The essence of this rule is “return,” which has two different implications. One indicates the contrary and opposite, namely, a thing in motion may transform into its opposite. The other suggests returning, meaning that a thing eventually returns to its initial state. This concept embodies the profound understanding of Laozi and Daoist scholars about the rule governing the motion of things.
DETAILED>>This term aims to explain how human culture arose. It stands in contrast to what is known as “heaven’s ways” or “earth’s ways,” the former referring to laws governing the movement and change of heavenly bodies and weather, while the latter to that of topographic features and directions of mountains and rivers. Since humans came into being with their spiritual pursuits and thoughts, human culture has thrived and prospered. Human culture, as encapsulated in this term, is taken to mean education in etiquette and music, laws and regulations, and especially outcomes of creative endeavor such as art, literature, and philosophy. A close inquiry into these origins can help to clarify the essential character of art and literature, and enable us to better grasp the laws of their development. However, dispute remains as to the precise meaning of the term. The most influential view was raised by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties. He held that human culture had its origins in taiji, namely the supreme ultimate. But scholars continued to argue about the exact meaning of taiji. So the origin of human culture should perhaps be interpreted more broadly as the sum total of feelings and thoughts of our prehistoric ancestors who grappled with their existence between heaven and earth. Such feelings and thoughts were primitive and related closely to the natural world, so it can be safely said that those earliest inhabitants of the earth understood the universe and life in a more original way than people of today.
DETAILED>>This concept originated in Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals and was proposed by Shuxing. Generally speaking, individuals strive for auspiciousness and seek to avoid inauspiciousness. However, there are divergent views on the causes that lead to auspicious or inauspicious outcomes. Some believe that these states are beyond human control, governed by external forces, laws, or fate. The concept that the outcome of auspiciousness or inauspiciousness depends on human behavior challenges this notion and asserts that the results of auspiciousness and inauspiciousness are contingent upon human behavior.
DETAILED>>The term was first proposed by the Southern Dynasties literary critic Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons as a summary of the prevailing literary style in the Jian’an era at the end of the Han Dynasty. Through their works, the literary figures of the era gave free play to their talent in expressing their deep sorrows, frustration, and indignation while articulating their ambition, enthusiasm, pride, and tenacity. Running through their literature, Liu Xie observed, was a powerful spirit – the drive of their spiritual being that manifested itself in their literary creation as a passionate writing style. The spontaneous free overflow of the individual writer’s sentiments reflected an awareness of the impermanence of life, a heightened consciousness of the self, and a deep recognition of their agency and creativity.
DETAILED>>This quotation from the chapter “Extolment and Commendation” of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons conveys the idea that the people should be allowed to freely express their ideas and release their emotions, as all remarks, especially critical and remonstrative ones, may have positive roles to play. Every commoner has his or her own views and feelings on social issues, especially on how the government is run.These discordant views and highly personal feelings, whether laudatory or critical, should be considered by the leadership of the state as reflections of the ethos, sentiments, thoughts, and opinions of the public, and as reference points for the improvement of governance. There is a need for free expression of views and wishes and proper release of discontent by the people, whose voices must not, and certainly can never, be silenced. In this sense, the quotation reveals the spirit of realism in Chinese literature. It encourages writers to know and write about reality, to straightforwardly express feelings and points of view, and not to write for flattery, adulation, material benefits, or avoidance of harm.
DETAILED>>The people of all the countries in the world are like members of one family. “Love of people” is the core of the humanistic Chinese spirit. It is not limited by family, race or national boundaries; rather, it is a concept of a common value which extends to each individual. The term tongbao (同胞) has long exceeded the scope of blood relatives and grown to mean people of the same ethnic group or country, particularly those who share a common language and cultural heritage. It may even go beyond the boundaries of ethnic groups and countries and refer to the entire human race. Humans and all things share a common origin – they are created by heaven and earth; those born as people should all the more be friendly with each other and see others as family. We might say that these concepts of equality and broad love are the shared spiritual riches of the human race.
DETAILED>>In the collective psyche of the populace, there exists no unwavering allegiance to an immutable leader. Instead, it is an enduring yearning for kind-hearted leadership that prevails. The allegiance of the people is not an unyielding fortress – it morphs, gravitating towards those leaders who prioritize their well-being. To effectively win the people’s support, a leader must place the tangible interests of the populace at the forefront of their concerns. Every policy formulated, and each measure adopted, must be unequivocally designed to represent, safeguard,and ultimately realize the interests of the people. For any leader, the legitimacy and efficacy of power are not self-evident virtues – they must be gradually established through an unwavering commitment to benefit the populace. More than a mere guideline, this principle is another iteration of the fundamental assertion that “the people’s will is foundation of the state.” It personifies the essence of the Chinese spirit–the“people-first” philosophy.
DETAILED>>The notion of the people’s will being the foundation, or the “roots,” of government comes from a dialogue between a king of the Shang Dynasty and Houfu (in a text found on bamboo slips of the Warring States Period). Houfu said to the king, “The people’s will is like the roots of a tree: they support the leaves.” By that he meant that public support was the foundation of the state, and without it the state or political power would perish. The ancients believed that a government was legitimate so long as it “followed the mandate of heaven and complied with the wishes of the people.” people’s wishes were a prerequisite of heaven’s will, and only if the state complied with the people’s wishes, would it enjoy lasting stability. This notion is identical to the concept that "people are the foundation of the state".
DETAILED>>The purpose of meting out punishment is to eliminate punishment, which is an extension of the Confucian idea of “rule by virtue.” The Confucian point of view is that education by rites and music is the main means of state governance, and penalties are only auxiliary. The aim of governance is to educate the people through these two means, educating and transforming them so that they adopt virtuous conduct and abide by the laws, thus bringing great order to all under heaven and making punishments unnecessary, that is to say, eliminating punishments. It is also the ideal state attained within the framework of “rule by virtue.” This represents the dialectical point of view of the unity of means and aims.
It is one of the four major traditional festivals, namely, the Spring Festival, Qingming Festival, the Dragon Boat Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, that are celebrated by the Chinese. It is the only Chinese festival which occurs on one of the solar terms of the traditional calendar, usually on April 4, 5 or 6. Prior to the Tang Dynasty, Qingming functioned primarily as one of the 24 solar terms that reflected natural changes of seasons and were closely associated with timing of agricultural activities. After the Tang and Song dynasties, Qingming took the place of the Hanshi (“Cold Food”) Festival, and the practices of sweeping ancestral graves and eating cold food became prominent features of the Qingming Festival. At this time of year, with the coming of spring, all living things are bursting with vitality, and people go on country outings, plant willows, fly kites and play on swings. Today, Qingming has remained a festival of special significance to the Chinese. On May 20, 2006, it was put on the first list of national-level intangible cultural heritages by the Chinese government.
DETAILED>>Qu and Song here refer respectively to Qu Yuan (340?-278？ BC) and Song Yu, both being poets of the State of Chu of the Warring States Period. The former was the pioneer of chuci poetry and a great romantic poet. His most representative work was titled Li Sao. The latter, said to be Qu's student, excelled in the writing of Chu-style ci and fu poetry after Qu passed away, his representative work being “Jiu Bian” (“The Nine Stanzas” or “The Nine Changes”). Later generations referred to the two as Qu-Song, though Song Yu's literary attainments were far inferior to those of Qu Yuan.
The Revolution in the Circle of Poets was a cultural movement in early modern China. A part of the Revolution in the Literati Circle, it aimed to reform poetic expression. Liang Qichao (1873-1929) was the first one to champion this movement. In his work “My Days in Hawaii,” he argued that modern poetry should draw on the style and format of classical poetry, but it must also develop new artistic conception and expressions to depict contemporary life. He opposed the obscurity and formal restraints of classical Chinese poetry, arguing that without a revolution among poets, poetry in China would wither. He said that new poetry should be simple in language, convey new ideas, and disseminate modern values to enlighten people in China. Liang Qichao, Huang Zunxian (1848-1905), Yan Fu (1854-1921), Xia Zengyou (1863-1924), Tan Sitong (1865-1898), and Qiu Weixuan (1874-1941) all wrote poetry in modern Chinese and published their writings in newspapers and magazines. Generally speaking, verses written under the influence of the Revolution in the Circle of Poets did not have high artistic value. Rather, they were old in style but new in content, yet they did not make smooth reading. However, their creative spirit later gave rise to truly vernacular new poetry.
The Revolution in the Literati Circle, which took place in early modern China, was a cultural movement aimed at transforming classical Chinese language and literature. In 1899, Liang Qichao (1873-1929), frustrated by the failure of the Reform Movement of 1898, saw an urgent need to reform and uplift the national character of the Chinese people. He used writing to introduce new ideas from the West, hoping that this would help enlighten and educate his fellow countrymen and change their ways of thinking. One target of this revolution was the prose of the Tongcheng School, which was founded by some natives of Tongcheng County, Anhui Province in the early years of the Qing Dynasty. Another target was Pianwen, rhythmical prose characterized by parallelism and ornateness. This revolution aimed to merge classical oral Chinese and classical written Chinese into one form and use a new style and wording to convey modern Western concepts and ideas. Liang Qichao created a new style by employing many colloquial expressions and the grammar of foreign languages. His writings were full of emotion. The Revolution in the Literati Circle shared goals of the Revolution in the Circle of Poets and the Revolution in the Circle of Fiction Writers: to promote a reform in the style of writing. It enhanced the popularity of vernacular Chinese, inspired the literary revolution of the May 4th period (1919), and paved the way for vernacular poetry and prose to gain dominance in the Chinese literary writing.
DETAILED>>The term originally meant that in exercising governance, a ruler should act with benevolence and righteousness and not be tempted to seek immediate gains. Later, it came to mean the need to follow the righteous way, namely, sound principles or approaches, instead of seeking immediate gains. Such gains are not only petty and transitory in nature and unsustainable, but may also cause irreversible adverse consequences. Those who aim high should therefore focus on the big picture and long-term overall interests. They should always follow the righteous way and never allow themselves to be distracted by petty gains. The underlying message of this term is that no great accomplishment can be made quickly and easily and the righteous way must be followed.
DETAILED>>This term means that two kings Wen and Wu (?-1043BC) of Zhou applied the idea of taut and slack bowstrings in archery to governing: a mixture of strictness and leniency. Wenwu (文武) refers to King Wen and King Wu of Zhou; dao (道) means the way of governing; zhang (张) taut bowstring, or strictness; and chi (弛) slack bowstring, or leniency. The Confucian school of thought, as represented by Confucius (551-479BC), advocated that governance should be based foremost on morality, propriety and education, with the use of force and punishment in second place only. The pen and the sword, leniency and strictness should complement each other. The expression is a crystallization of the wisdom of the ancient sage kings. In the modern sense, people should apply this attitude to organizing their life: a balance of work and play.
DETAILED>>In the development of Confucianism in ancient China, the belief of Confucius (551-479 BC) to pass on the thinking of past sages without change led the trend to restore and revere the thinking of the ancients. Later generation scholars who studied Confucianism adopted this trend as a special approach to study. As described by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, this was “tracing the fundamental way of nature, following what sages said and the guidance of Confucian classics.” Liu advocated that all poetic and other literary works should be written in accordance with the Confucian classics and that such works should inherit the refined styles of the classics and give play their educational role. Confucius lived less than a hundred years, but his thinking has been passed on for more than a thousand years and is still influential today.
DETAILED>>This title was given to the renowned calligrapher Wang Xizhi, who lived from 303 to 361 (or possibly 307-365 or 321-379) of the Eastern Jin Period. The word "sage" here refers to a person of supreme attainment. People in ancient China tended to honor a person with an exceptional talent or skill as a "sage" in recognition of his outstanding accomplishments, prominent achievements, and profound influence. The term "Sage of Calligraphy" not only highlights Wang Xizhi’s superb mastery of calligraphic art but also commended his moral integrity. By carefully studying the features of calligraphy, and by imitating and practicing, Wang learned widely from the strong points of others. He was extraordinarily good at all four major forms of calligraphy – clerical script, cursive script, regular script, and running script. His calligraphy abandoned the special traits popular in the Han and Wei dynasties and formed a style of his own. His most noted and famous work, "Preface to the Collection of Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion" has been honored through the ages as the best running script ever written. Promoted by Xiao Yan (464-549), Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty, Li Shimin (599-649), Emperor Taizong of the Tang, and Zhao Guangyi (939-997), Emperor Taizong of the Song, there appeared three upsurges of emulating Wang’s calligraphy on a massive scale. Hence his prestige as the greatest calligrapher of all times.
DETAILED>>Sages can fully examine the laws of the universe and observe and study the subtleties of things. All-embracing and adaptable to different conditions of things, their thoughts perfectly agree with objective facts. For example, The Spring and Autumn Annals is succinct, where a single character can convey the writer’s praise or criticism. Yet the poem “The Seventh Month” in “The Bin Ballads” of The Book of Songs and the chapter “Conduct of the Scholar” of The Book of Rites do not hesitate to reiterate the authors’ respective ideas and express their feelings with manifold words. Therefore, to learn writing from the sages means to compose admirable articles that not only conform in manners to the rules of writing and correspond in content to objective facts but also adapt flexibly to different situations as required.
DETAILED>>The Confucian classics, such as The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals, are not only truthful and elegant in thought, but also rich in content and refined in style. Written for different purposes, these books vary greatly in style. Produced centuries ago, these classics were later rewritten by Confucian scholars according to their writing styles, and they were used in the Confucian education system. These classic writings had an important impact on all aspects of ancient Chinese politics, society, culture, and life. They were not only classics for moral education, but also set standards for scholarly writing.
DETAILED>>Wu Daozi of the Tang Dynasty executed his brushstrokes in a curvy and graceful manner, so that sashes on the people in his paintings seem flutter in the wind. Compared with Gu Kaizhi (345?-409), Wu's painting is more nuanced and lifelike. He used his brush with perfect ease and fluency. His works are dynamic and vivid, presenting a distinctly new style and aesthetic effect, reflecting the development of the art of painting.
The six arts may refer to two sets of content. They may refer to the Six Classics: The Book Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. Confucian scholars through the ages kept interpreting these classical texts, endowing them with rich significance. Theories related to the six arts represent the basic views of the ancients in regard to world order and values. The six arts may also refer to the six skills of rituals, music, archery, charioteering, writing, and mathematics, which were the basic contents of school teaching in antiquity.
DETAILED>>The six basic elements were drawn from The Book of Songs by scholars of the Han Dynasty to promote the state’s governance, social enlightenment, and education. The six are: feng (ballad), which offers an insight into the influence of a sage’s thinking on ordinary folk customs; fu (narrative), which directly states the goodness or evilness of court politics; bi (analogy), which criticizes mildly the inadequacies of court politics by comparing one thing with another; xing (association), which extols a virtue by making an indirect reference to some other laudable thing; ya (court hymn), which shows the proper way of doing things as a norm for posterity to follow; and song (eulogy), which praises and promotes virtue. All the six elements were originally used by Confucian scholars to expound on the creative techniques in The Book of Songs. Later, they were used to emphasize creative styles of all works of poetry. They also served as essential principles of literary criticism.
DETAILED>>The Six Confucian Classics are The Book of Changes, The Book of History, The Book of Songs, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. An important proposition put forward by scholars of late imperial China was that those are all historical texts. According to these scholars, the Six Classics are all concerned with the social and political realities of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties rather than the teachings left by ancient sages. Zhang Xuecheng（1738-1801） of the Qing Dynasty was the representative scholar to systematically expound this proposition. This view challenged the sacred status of the classics of Confucianism and marked a self-conscious and independent trend in Chinese historiography.
DETAILED>>This is an aphorism from Yue Fei (1103-1142), a prominent general of the Song Dynasty. In his theory of warfare, a central concept is the subjective role the front line commander plays in the flexible deployment of tactics. While the general principles and laws of war always apply, it is also necessary to respect the individual initiative of the commander on the battlefield. His abilities to adapt to the situation on the ground, take appropriate decisions, deal with changing situations and employ flexible tactics are all primary guarantees of maintaining the initiative in a conflict.
DETAILED>>The style of The Spring and Autumn Annals is characterized by simple and concise language expressing ideas and commending or criticizing historical figures and events in an indirect way. The style is well known for “what is included or excluded has profound meanings.” Also “every word in it reflects either approval or censure of the sage,” and “subtle words carry profound meanings.” Tradition has it that The Spring and Autumn Annals was edited by Confucius（551-479 BC） for the purpose of safeguarding the rites of the Zhou Dynasty. The text does not use argumentative language to express the author’s views; instead, it tactfully expresses favorable and unfavorable views on historical figures and events by giving brief accounts using designations with special connotations or subtle expressions derived according to the rites of Zhou. Later on, this particular style became a traditional method of compiling history works.
DETAILED>>This term refers to a poetic style popular for about 30 years from the early to mid-Western Jin Dynasty, particularly in the Taikang era (280–289) during the reign of Emperor Wu. Among the poets of this tradition were Zuo Si (250?-305?), Pan Yue (247-300), and Lu Ji (261-303). Taikang poets focused excessively on the use of rhetorical description, verbal parallelism, and refined poetic techniques, representing an abrupt departure from the Jian’an （196-220）poetry with its passion, boldness, and vitality. Standing out among the Taikang poets was Zuo Si, who used plain language, but whose works had substance and were imbued with passion and strength.
DETAILED>>This school of writing represented the Qing Dynasty’s most influential style of classical Chinese writing. Its representative figures were all natives of Tongcheng, Anhui Province, hence the name. It was formed during the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1662-1722) and reached its height during the reigns of Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795) and Emperor Jiaqing (1796-1820). Its founder, Fang Bao (1668-1749), believed that men of letters should follow the style of writing of the neo-Confucian moralists Cheng Hao (1032-1085), Cheng Yi (1033-1107), and Zhu Xi (1130-1200), and that of great men of letters like Han Yu (768-824) and Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072). This set the tone for this school of writing. Among its prominent figures were Dai Mingshi (1653-1713), Liu Dakui (1698-1779), Yao Nai (1732-1815), Mei Zengliang (1786-1856), Fang Dongshu (1772-1853), and Wu Rulun (1840-1903). Writers of this school emphasized that writings should convey moral ideals and be refined and well-laid out in form. Such a style of writing was based on Fang Bao’s “guidelines for writing good prose,” Yao Nai’s stress on “conveying righteous messages, facts and evidence, and rhetoric and technique,” and Liu Dakui’s theory about “a piece of writing and its author’s charm.” The Tongcheng School of Writing inherited Chinese scholars’ tradition of writing in classical Chinese and offered a theoretical summary about prose writing. It enjoyed high prestige until the Revolution in the Literati Circle led by Liang Qichao (1873-1929), when it came under attack as a symbol of conservatism.
The Tong-Guang School of poetry, which first emerged during the reigns of the Tongzhi (1862-1874) and Guangxu (1875-1908) emperors of late Qing, continued to flourish in the early years of the Republic of China early in the 20th century. It was thus named by combining the initial characters of the two emperors’ reign titles. Chen Sanli (1852-1937), Shen Zengzhi (1850-1922), Chen Yan (1856-1937) and Zheng Xiaoxu (1860-1938) were representative figures of this school. They valued Song ci poetry, a kind of lyric classical Chinese poetry using a poetic meter based upon certain patterns of fixed-rhythm formal types. Their aim was to blend “the poetry of a poet” with “the poetry of a scholar,” merging a poet’s aspirations, feelings, academic learning and moral accomplishment into an integral whole. They incorporated commentaries into their poems and carefully weighed their words. Stylistically, they pursued a vigorous brevity and straightforwardness, trying to blaze "a way through desolate wilderness." Due to regional and stylistic differences, this school of poetic creation is further divided into the Fujian, Zhejiang and Jiangxi branches.
The twelve-tone equal temperament is a standard scale tuning in which an octave is divided into 12 equal semitones, with the interval value of any two adjacent semitones being the 12th root of 2. It was first proposed by Zhu Zaiyu (1536-1611),a musician of the Ming Dynasty. Zhu was the first scholar in the world to determine the twelve-tone equal temperament, and he not only created a new historical stage of Chinese temperament, but also set a milestone in the music history of the world. As early as the Zhou Dynasty, the ancient Chinese had discovered the twelve-tone temperament, but the temperament calculated by scholars over the ages in terms of equivalence could not enable modulation, concerning both key and mode changes. However, Zhu realized that the relationship between the pitches of the semitones was in fact an equiproportional relationship, and after clever calculations, he created a new method of dividing the temperament equally with geometric progression, which is exactly the same as the twelve-tone equal temperament of today, and has the advantage that it enables key and mode changes. Zhu also applied the principles of the twelve-tone equal temperament to musical instruments and designed and built some new instruments. The twelve-tone equal temperament is widely used in keyboard instruments all over the world and the piano is an instrument invented and tuned according to this principle.
DETAILED>>“The twenty-four solar terms” is a unique phenomenon on the traditional lunar calendar. To facilitate agricultural production, ancient Chinese people summarized a supplementary calendar that divides a year into 24 segments according to the sun’s movement on the ecliptic and seasonal changes in weather and other natural phenomena, with the 24 solar terms proportionally distributed through the 12 months. A solar term that starts in the early part of a month is called jie (节), and one that starts in the middle part of a month is called qi (气). (Every three years there would be a month which has only a jie without a qi, or a month which has only a qi without a jie, in which case a leap month would be added to regulate it.) The solar terms are so named that they represent the changes in season, phenology and climate. The eight solar terms that reflect seasonal changes are Beginning of Spring, Vernal Equinox, Beginning of Summer, Summer Solstice, Beginning of Autumn, Autumnal Equinox, Beginning of Winter and Winter Solstice; the four solar terms that represent phenological changes are Waking of Insects, Fresh Green, Lesser Fullness and Grain in Ear; and the 12 solar terms that indicate the changes in climate are Rain Water, Grain Rain, Lesser Heat, Greater Heat, End of Heat, White Dew, Cold Dew, First Frost, Light Snow, Heavy Snow, Lesser Cold and Greater Cold. First established in the Qin and Han dynasties, the 24 solar periods have not only facilitated agricultural production but also reflected Chinese people’s perception of time in the past more than two thousand years.
DETAILED>>That the virtue of those exercising power is reflected in good governance is a political concept put forward in The Book of History, an ancient Chinese political classic. For one who exercises power, virtue is not just maintaining his moral integrity, certainly not empty talk. Rather, it must find expression in his interactions with others and effective governance. In other words, the virtue of one who exercises power is defined by good governance that he strives to achieve. If one who exercises power fails to maintain good political governance, his virtue is called into question. Ultimately, good government should deliver a good life to the people. What this concept stresses is the importance of virtuous governance for the people.
DETAILED>>According to this term, a mountain is lofty and steadfast, conserving everything with its infinite forbearance. Thus, a virtuous man feels elated by associating this with poise, serenity and benevolence. Water, on the other hand, runs on incessantly, finding its way around without being deterred by any obstacle. Thus, a wise man feels joyful recalling how water meanders its course and keeps pace with the seasons. These two statements complement each other in meaning. Benevolent and wise people note their own nature and aptitude, even their own spiritual state of being, through mountains and water, hence their happiness at the sight of natural scenery. This represents two aspects of a noble-minded person’s self-cultivation. It is a personification of natural beauty and an experience of aesthetic appreciation brought about by comparing virtue to, and empathizing with, mountains and water. Thus, mountains and waters are often associated with beautiful feelings and have become a common aesthetic image. Wandering among mountains and streams is also seen as an important way for a man of letters to cultivate himself. This comparison made between virtue and natural scenery is typical in Chinese artistic expression and thought.
DETAILED>>This term refers to an artistic state wherein a calligraphic artist pursues a unity between body and soul through calligraphic creation, so that he may embrace the truths about the universe and life. It was influenced by Confucius (551-479 BC) who said: “[Cultivated people] should follow dao, adhere to virtues, embrace benevolence, and are well versed in various arts and skills.” It was influenced even more by Zhuangzi’s (369? -286 BC) aesthetic view, “If we can achieve perfection in a particular area of skill, we come close to the great Way itself.” The calligrapher aims higher than the mere art of calligraphy, aspiring to attain the great Way by transcending calligraphy as a mere skill or form of art. By the Tang Dynasty, because calligraphers put more emphasis on the different forms and skills of calligraphy, they started to use a new term “calligraphic technique.” Calligraphic technique represented an initial stage of calligraphy – a tangible, superficial and somewhat “lower” level. The calligraphic Way, on the other hand, was an advanced stage of calligraphic technique, paying attention to universal, abstract and therefore much “higher” aspects of calligraphy. This latter concept spread to Japan and took on the broader implications of self-cultivation and enlightenment later on. It, in turn, influenced the development of modern Chinese calligraphic art.
This saying is recorded in Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals and is attributed to Zichan (?-522 BC), a senior minister of the State of Zheng during the Spring and Autumn Period. Here, the way of heaven refers to the law of the heavenly phenomena, including the movement of celestial bodies, while the way of man denotes the norms of human affairs. By drawing a sharp distinction between the remoteness of the way of heaven and the closeness of the way of man, Zichan sought to make clear that human affairs have nothing to do with astral movements and to reject any correspondences or causal connection between heavenly phenomena and human affairs.
DETAILED>>This refers to the way to judge the artistic quality of calligraphy. Wang Sengqian (426-485) of the Southern Dynasty and Zhang Huaiguan (dates unknown) of the Tang Dynasty held that the primary criterion for appreciating calligraphy is whether it features a spiritual liveliness; the concern about the way of how to use the brush and ink is secondary. Both of them valued a calligraphic work's spiritual verve and structural integrity and despised an excessive obsession with superficial decorum and practical usefulness. This preference represents a major criterion for appreciating ancient Chinese calligraphy.
DETAILED>>The term comes from the book Mozi. Mozi (468?-376 BC) felt that heaven was the highest authority, and that heaven’s will was for people to love one another regardless of rank, namely “universal love.” Heaven would reward those who acted in accordance with its will, and punish those who contravened it. Given the supreme and irresistible authority of heaven, what it affirmed or rejected constituted the basic guidelines for people’s words and deeds and for interpersonal relations.
DETAILED>>This term means heaven’s work, or a responsibility assigned by heaven. “Heaven’s work” can have different meanings. First, it can mean work done by heaven. For example, Xunzi (313?-238 BC) felt that heaven could give rise to all things. This is an inherent function of heaven; it is neither something humans are capable of, nor is it something they should seek to do. Second, it can mean a responsibility assigned by heaven to humans. Because the authority of heaven is supreme, a responsibility which it assigns is unshirkable.
DETAILED>>The world is a public realm and therefore belongs to all the people. Tianxia (天下), which literally means everything under heaven, used to refer to the monarch, state power, or the nation; later it extended to mean the whole world. In the narrow sense, gong (公) refers to figures with both integrity and competence, while in the broad sense it refers to all the people of a country, or everyone in the world. This term has two meanings. The first is that the position of a ruler is not the private property of just one person or his family, but rather belongs to all people of virtue and ability. Hence, the throne should be passed on to people according to their merit rather than through bloodline. The second meaning is that a country does not belong to a single individual or family, but belongs to the public. This is a people-centered vision, which opposes hereditary rule and believes that people with virtue and competence should be selected to exercise power. Ancient Chinese held this to be the foundation and guarantee for people to enjoy a happy life and realize universal harmony. In modern times, it evolved into a key concept calling for overthrowing autocracy and realizing democracy and later into a longing for an ideal society.
DETAILED>>This poetic style pursued rhetorical beauty and symmetrical structure. In the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty, poets such as
Originating in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the Yellow River is the second longest waterway in China, flowing eastward through the provinces of Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu, the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, as well as the provinces of Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, and Shandong before emptying into the Bohai Sea. With a total length of 5,464 kilometers, the Yellow River is one of the major waterways in the world. The river is so named because of its yellowish color caused by the large amount of silts washed into it. Considered the cradle of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture, the river is therefore known as the Mother River among the Chinese, and has become an important cultural image and sign for the Chinese nation. It symbolizes the heroism and perseverance with which the Chinese nation forges ahead against all odds.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the poetic style most popular during the rule of Emperor Xianzong (806-820) of the Tang Dynasty under the reign title of Yuanhe. It can be understood either broadly or narrowly. In a broad sense, the Yuanhe style of poetry refers to all new forms of verse prevalent from the Yuanhe era onward, created by famed Yuanhe-era writers such as Han Yu (768-824), Yuan Zhen (779-831), Bai Juyi (772-846), and Zhang Ji (767?-830?). In a narrow sense, it refers to lengthy regulated verse and shorter poems of mixed metrical schemes in poetic composition of the works of Yuan Zhen and Bai Juyi. Both poets paid careful attention to the narrative function of poetry. For example, “A Song of the Lianchang Palace,” “A Song of Unending Sorrow,” and “A Song of the Pipa Player” are all representative of lengthy narrative poetry. They also pursued a more popular style of poetry, using vernacular language which was intelligible and easy to remember for ordinary readers. Moreover, they tried to combine poetry and music, making their works rhythmically beautiful and harmonious, thus suitable for chanting or singing.
DETAILED>>The term refers to the literary style of the final years of the State of Wei in the Three Kingdoms period. It emerged in the Zhengshi era (240–249) under the reign of Cao Fang（232-274）, also known as Prince Qi of Wei. Facing the harsh prevailing political conditions, literary figures of the era viewed life and the world in a broader and philosophical context, and profound and rational analysis as well as penetrating depiction of human tragedies were underlying features of their writings. Reverence for Laozi and Zhuangzi was a key feature of this literary style, with poetry, in particular, being abstruse and philosophical in terms of message. The Zhengshi style had two schools. One was represented by He Yan (?-249) and Wang Bi (226-
As one of the two ci (词) lyric schools of the Song Dynasty, the graceful and restrained school mainly dealt with romantic love or parting sorrow. It featured sentimental and nuanced expression of one’s feelings, graceful and melodious metric patterning, and mellow and subtle use of language. Ci lyrics of this school emerged early, and many poets were famed for writing this style of ci, especially Wen Tingyun (?-866) and Li Yu (937-978) of the Five Dynasties period, Liu Yong (987?-1053?), Yan Shu (991-1055), Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), Yan Jidao (1038-1110), Qin Guan (1049-1100), He Zhu (1052-1125), Zhou Bangyan (1056-1121), and Li Qingzhao (1084-1151?) of the Northern Song Dynasty, as well as Jiang Kui (1155?-1209), Wu Wenying (1212?-1272?), and Zhang Yan (1248-1314?) of the Southern Song Dynasty. The graceful and restrained school occupied a dominant position in terms of both quantity and quality in over one thousand years of poetry’s development. It should be mentioned that poets of this school also cared deeply about the fate of the nation, but they tended to express their concerns in a personal and sentimental way, often through depicting scenery. Therefore, their poems should not be regarded as lacking of vigor and energy.
DETAILED>>Being a supreme domain in terms of principle, li (理) exists in different things and manifests itself in different forms. “There is but one li, which exists in diverse forms” – this is an important way in which the Song- and Ming-dynasty thinkers viewed the forms in which li exists. As li has different meanings, its one-and- diverse composition is also interpreted in different ways. First, as the origin of universe in an ontological sense, li runs through all things. The li of each thing is not a part of li, rather, it is endowed with the full meaning of li. Second, representing the universal law governing all things, the universal li expresses itself in the form of different guiding principles in specific things. The li of each thing or being is a concrete expression of the universal li. The concept of li being one and same ensures unity of the world, whereas its diversity provides the basis for multifarious things and hierarchical order.
DETAILED>>Music itself should not be divided into joyful music and sad music – it can only accommodate or inspire feelings. This idea was first raised by Ji Kang (223-262 or 224-263) of the Three Kingdoms period. Ji held that music should be separated from emotion and aspiration. Emotion and aspiration, he said, are controlled by the soul and show themselves in many musical forms. The feelings or aspirations expressed by a musician are different from those evoked in the listener’s heart. The relation of music to the governance of a country is that rulers should first know more about the livelihood and aspirations of ordinary people and then moralize them accordingly. Musicians can incorporate truths, wholesome aspirations, and noble ideals into harmonious and beautiful music, linking music to certain implications cementing among the audience a broad consensus so as to exert positive impact on the popular belief, improve social customs, and in the process further strengthen messages implied in the music. This theory of non-differentiation between joyful music and sad music urges literary critics of later generations to examine a combination of factors such as historical changes, social customs, the inner worlds of authors, and the psychological reception of audiences, and to understand the essence and functions of art and literature more rationally.
DETAILED>>As employed in traditional Chinese art and literature, “thin” here means bony or not plump; it is used in collocation with “strong,” emphasizing a work’s strong structural force. Used in poetic composition, the term refers to a layout devoid of elaborate writing, flowery wording or excessively subtle description. Instead, amazingly new metrical patterns and bold, concise phrases and sentences are preferred to achieve a “thin and strong” style. When used in painting and calligraphy, it refers to thin but vigorous strokes executed to highlight a quality of unbending rigidity, unlike other more robust styles.
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When faced with gain one should first consider and distinguish whether the obtainment of gain is in accord with morality. This is a Confucian criterion for dealing with the relation between righteousness and gain. Between the pursuit of gain and the upholding of morality a conflict has long existed. Because people more often than not may covet personal gain and overlook morality, their actions may go against virtue and violate the law. Against this kind of situation Confucius （551-479 BC） advanced the stand of “thinking of righteousness in the face of gain,” proposing that people should strive for gain on the basis of the principle of morality. He who knows morality is a man of virtue, and he who blindly pursues gain is a petty man.
DETAILED>>Those who are adept at coping with defeat cannot be destroyed. No party in a war can always be sure of victory and never be defeated. An outstanding commander must not only be skilled at using his advantages when in a position of strength, he must also be adept at coping with disadvantages when in a position of weakness. When defeat is inevitable, he must take the initiative as much as possible and reduce losses to the minimum, thereby avoiding a catastrophic defeat which could lead to an overall breakdown, collapse and destruction. This expression exemplifies the dialectic of seeking to take the initiative when at a disadvantage; it is even more broadly applicable in contemporary society.
DETAILED>>This is the counsel of Sun Wu, a renowned ancient military thinker. The goal of war is first and foremost to protect oneself and to defeat the enemy, and conversely only by defeating the enemy can one fully protect oneself. Another way of seeing this is to recognize that effective self-protection is the precondition for defeating the enemy. That is why the commander must plan carefully, prepare for both attack and defense, and not give the enemy any chance to fulfill its military objectives.
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Those who are warmongering will inevitably be destroyed, and those who forget war will inevitably land in danger. That is, countries that like to make war are certain to bring destruction upon themselves, and countries which are not prepared for war will find themselves in dangerous situations. Haozhan (好战) refers to those who are keen to stir up conflicts and wars externally for their own interests and in disregard of moral principles; wangzhan (忘战) is to forget that war may befall oneself and thus fail to be appropriately prepared for it. Ancient Chinese believed that domestic and international affairs should be handled with a spirit of loving others. Wars exhaust a country’s resources and lead to loss of life; even a just war, a “war to end wars” conducted to defend a country and safeguard its people, should be a last resort. This phrase both illustrates the dialectical relationship between war and the rise and fall of countries and demonstrates the “civil” nature of the Chinese people who love peace.
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Someone who deeply cares about the people will have a strong desire to seek out talent. “Talent” refers to outstanding people, namely those with high morals and skills; “the people” refers to the general public, and “loving the people” means “caring about the people.” The term “love” as used here does not refer to personal morality or individual affection; it refers to how administrators must govern a country well so as to ensure the basic well-being and interests of its people, to spare them from suffering and unwarranted infringements, and to enable them to live stably and work happily. To achieve this, administrators must rely on outstanding people for the country's governance; hence administrators who truly care about the people will of course have a strong desire to find talent. “To love the people” is fundamental, and “to seek talent” is its specific means of implementation.
DETAILED>>Relying on moral strength will bring prosperity, whereas relying on violence will bring doom. The saying is described in The Book of History (as cited in Records of the Historian). De (德) refers to morals, grace, and integrity. Li (力) refers to coercion, violence, and military power. Under the influence of the political and ethical principles of the Confucian school, since ancient times the Chinese people have been advocating benevolent governance virtue (winning over people with benevolence) as opposed to rule by force (wielding power over people), believing that only by relying on benevolence can the ruler hope to win people’s hearts and minds, resulting therefore in a positive synergy that brings about prosperity. Rule by force, on the other hand, can merely coerce people into submission, but cannot achieve genuine and lasting harmony and unity. This is true not only in managing an entity or governing a country, but also in handling relationships among countries. As a principle for managing international relations, the term suggests that wanton engagement in military action or attempting to completely dominate others are incompatible with the development of civilization. Only by observing moral principles and trusting one another can sustainable peace and security be achieved in the world.
Whether their opinions are correct or not, people who speak their minds should not be penalized and their messages should not be lost on their listeners. The term implies freedom of speech and a tolerant attitude towards criticism. To ensure proper governance and operation of a country, an organization, or a company, those in power and in management should have a good understanding of the situation on the ground as well as people’s needs and wishes, so as to mobilize all the segments of the society to play their roles. The way to achieve such result is to create healthy and harmonious relationships among people and let them speak their minds without fear so those in power can benefit from their various opinions and valuable insights. Even when the criticism from the general public or one’s subordinates is not fully justified, those in leading positions should take warning rather than condemning the critics.
DETAILED>>“Three friends of winter” refer to the pine, bamboo and plum. In traditional culture, certain human characteristics are attributed to plants and animals based on their natural qualities. The pine and bamboo remain green all year round even in the coldest season, and the plum blooms in early spring when snow and frost are still frequent. These three plants are cold resistant and retain their beauty even in harsh weather, just like good friends keep each other’s company during an icy winter. This term is often used to refer to loyal and steadfast friendship, and also represent the fine qualities of high-mindedness and detachment.
DETAILED>>The term refers to three metaphysical works: Laozi, Zhuangzi, and The Book of Changes. During the Han Dynasty, the study of the Five Classics was the prevailing trend; but during the Wei and Jin dynasties, the way of thinking changed considerably. Scholars turned their attention to Laozi, Zhuangzi, and The Book of Changes. The annotations by such people as He Yan (?-249), Wang Bi (226-249), Xiang Xiu (227?-272), and Guo Xiang (?-312) gave these classics new meanings. The Three Metaphysical Classics were the focus of discourse among leading scholars of the Wei and Jin dynasties, and they were regarded by scholars of metaphysic learning as a source of inspiration when they expressed their philosophical thinking. The study of the Three Metaphysical Classics focused on probing the contradiction between individual life and the outside world. It also fully demonstrated conflict and complementarity between the thinking of Confucian and Daoist scholars.
DETAILED>>The term means the three standards used to measure the truth of an assertion. The Chinese character biao (表) in this term means standard or norm. Mozi (468?-376 BC) believed in judging right or wrong by following the three standards. The first one was the successful way in which the ancient sage kings had ruled. The second one was the actual experience of the people. The third one was whether one’s words and deeds actually served the interests of the state and people. Mozi established his school of thought on the basis of the three standards and used them to evaluate and criticize the doctrines of other schools.
DETAILED>>According to the renowned historiographer Liu Zhiji （661-721）of the Tang Dynasty, those who study and write history must have three strengths, namely, the ability to compose historical works, rich knowledge of history and historical materials, and deep insight that enables them to analyze and evaluate history. Liu believed that deep insight in analyzing and commenting on history was the most important of the three qualifications.
DETAILED>>Thriftiness is a virtue espoused by ancient Chinese. However, its meaning varies somewhat among different schools of thought. According to the Confucian school, thriftiness meant rejecting extravagance and waste. One should practice no extravagance in holding a ceremony or in daily life. Extravagance causes waste of things. Moreover, it would lead people to indulge in the pursuit of wealth and thus deviate from the goal of the ceremony or action. To the Daoist school, thriftiness only referred to thriftiness expected of a ruler. The ruler should not satisfy his own desire by extracting wealth from the people and wasting it. Instead, he should practice thriftiness so as not to impose undue burden on people's lives.
DETAILED>>The expression “to purposefully put oneself in a life-threatening circumstance and risk death to achieve victory” is proposed by the ancient military thinker Sunzi. The term sidi (死地), or life-threatening danger, specifically refers to a situation in battle where he must fight hard or die, which will eventually help him to win against all obstacles and survive. This type of life-or-death scenario is a powerful way to motivate soldiers to fight bravely. It is therefore a recognized battlefield tactic to achieve victory by putting soldiers in circumstances where they face certain death. This military principle has been widely applied to various competitive activities in society at large.
DETAILED>>The term literally means to tie one’s hair on the house beam and jab one’s side with an awl. The idiom comes from the ancient story about how assiduously people studied. Sun Jing of the Eastern Han (25-220) would incessantly read books from dawn to dusk alone. When he felt tired or fatigued, he would tie his hair to the beam of the house, so that the moment he began to nod off, his head would be jerked back and this would immediately rouse him, and he could continue reading. During the Warring States Period, Su Qin (?-284 BC) would use an awl to jab at his own thigh, whenever he felt sleepy to make sure he stayed awake and lucid enough to be able to continue reading. Later, people started to tell these stories in order to encourage young people to study hard. Today, this kind of extreme measures which are physically harmful are no longer encouraged. However, this kind of assiduous spirit in the pursuit of knowledge is still highly lauded.
Shi (时 time or timing) has the following three meanings: First, the sequence or rules of heaven’s way, such as spring, summer, autumn, and winter; or hours that mark changes of time during day and night; Second, a certain celestial phenomenon or climatic condition having impact on human activity, such as seasons for farming or timing for other activities; Third, the right time or opportunity that emerges in the course of human activity. The emergence or disappearance of timing is governed by the rules of heaven’s way or human behavior. People should gain a good understanding and master time or timing and their manifested rules and act in a way commensurate with them.
DETAILED>>This term suggests that it is not difficult to act according to general moral principles; what is truly difficult is to appreciate them. This is a different understanding of the relationship between knowledge and action, which stands in contrast with the view that “to know is easy; to act is hard.” This idea was put forward by Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) in his Sun Wen’s Theory which was later incorporated into his The Fundamentals of National Reconstruction as the “Psychological Preparation” section. As Sun Yat-sen saw it, the traditional concept that “to know is easy; to act is hard” had by that time become a psychological barrier which both fettered people’s thinking and hindered revolutionary action. He thus proposed the view that “to act is easy; to know is hard” in opposition to the traditional view of knowledge and action, and emphasized the importance of gaining true knowledge to guide one’s action.
DETAILED>>To be benevolent and friendly towards neighboring countries was first mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals. The ancient Chinese used this notion as an important guiding principle in handling relations with neighboring countries: Countries should respect and be friendly to each other, and jointly foster a benign and stable environment. This is in the fundamental interests of all countries and their people. In terms of relations among countries, the pursuit of benevolence and good-neighborliness emphasizes friendship and peace between countries and is similar to the idea that if the lips are gone, the teeth will be cold. This concept also emphasizes moral values as a basis of good-neighborly relations, that is to say, both sides should be guided by moral values in handling their relations. The concept, as applied to international relations, is one of both principle and pragmatism. It embodies the Chinese nation’s pursuit of harmonious relations with other nations based on moral values.
DETAILED>>An army must be united if it wants to conquer the enemy. Shi (师) means army, ke (克) means to overcome the enemy and be victorious, and he (和) means men and officers are united and are of one mind. Coordination and cooperation are needed not only within the combat forces, but also among all other military units and forces. Similar expressions include “triumph comes when leaders and followers share the same goal,” and “to overcome the enemy one must first be united.” The modern equivalent is “unity gives great strength.”
DETAILED>>Wanting to live and not to die is only natural. A cardinal principle for those who took power was to save the people from disasters and win their trust. It was also what made governance legitimate. One should not drive the people to desperation so that they lose their will to live. Therefore the ruler should bear two things in mind: create all possible opportunities for people to survive, and when they are in difficulties, the state should do everything to help them. Otherwise basic order in state and society cannot be maintained, to say nothing of effective governance. This is the manifestation of the beliefs “caring for others” and “people first” as well as “charishing life.”
DETAILED>>This happens when a literary work reveals to its reader the truth and beauty of its author’s innermost feelings, to the point that the reader becomes oblivious to the wording. Such an idea was first raised by the Tang Dynasty poet-monk Jiaoran (720-796?). It emphasizes three points. First, the core value of literature is to express one’s true feeling; the wording is only a tool. Second, both the author and reader should focus on the meaning while forgetting the words. Third, tacit understanding is crucial to art and literature. Only through dialogue between souls can a variety of illocutionary implications be activated. The whole term highlights the importance of imagery and artistic ambience in classical Chinese literature.
DETAILED>>It is not difficult to know the moral principles guiding daily life; what is difficult is to practice them. This was a way with which the ancient Chinese dealt with the relationship between knowledge and action. This approach stood in contrast with the belief that action is easy whereas knowing is hard. This concept is mentioned in both Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals and the “old text” version of The Book of History. Such a view of knowledge and action regards human knowledge and actions as both separate and interlinked. By emphasizing the difficulty of acting, it seeks to avoid a disconnect between knowledge and action.
DETAILED>>To overcome the enemy, unity in one’s camp is of primary importance. This is a proposition made in Basics of Military Strategies and Tactics written by Xu Dong (976?-1017?) in the Northern Song Dynasty. Unity means the support of the people. The ancient Chinese believed that “favorable weather conditions, geographic advantages, and the unity of the people” were the three factors determining victory and success, and that unity was the most important factor. Military conflict is a contest between two forces, particularly a contest of human strength, thus the importance of unity within the military ranks and the support of the whole population will make one strong and ensure victory. This is similar to the saying that “triumph comes when leaders and follows share the same goal.”It also stresses the importance of a basic Chinese value, namely, putting the human factor first.
DETAILED>>Silencing the people and preventing them from expressing their opinions is more damaging than blocking the course of a river and causing a flood. Fang (防) means “a dike” to stop water flowing, and its extended meaning is to “block,” “prevent,” or “stop.” Obstructing the river flow will make the water rise and wash away the dikes, causing uncontrollable flooding. The ancients used this analogy to describe the serious harm that could occur if the public was not allowed to express its opinions. Taken from a positive angle, it means that the public will is powerful and irresistible, and that a ruler should allow its expression, or else expect popular resistance. The idea is in line with such notions as “people are the foundation of the state”, “the people’s will is the foundation of the state”, and “people can float the boat (of state) or sink it”.
DETAILED>>Always keeping oneself joyful is the way to cultivate one’s mind and character. This proposition was advanced by the Ming-dynasty philosopher Wang Yangming (1472-1529), who believed that one should maintain a joyful mood and always stay positive. Even when suffering from illness, enduring hardships, or facing slanders and insults, one should never let go such an attitude. The ability to remain joyful in all circumstances is ultimately determined by one’s self-control and personal cultivation. Wang Yangming was once humiliated by public flogging at court for speaking out to uphold justice, and was subsequently banished to Longchang Courier Station in Guizhou Province. This was a place of extremely harsh conditions with toxic fog and a sickening miasma, as well as poisonous snakes and wild beasts lurking around. Nevertheless, he claimed, “I was never depressed for a single day.” Instead of ruining his mood and crushing his spirit, the brutal asperities enabled him to hone his theory of “innate knowledge of good,” demonstrating his highly cultivated mind and rock-solid self-control.
DETAILED>>This term refers to rules and practices which create tonal and rhythmical beauty in prose and verse by blending sounds, rhythms and tones together. Zhou Yong, a scholar of the Qi and Liang periods of the Southern Dynasties, divided the intonation of the Chinese language into four tones: the level tone, the rising tone, the entering tone and the falling tone. On that basis, Shen Yue (441-513), another scholar, proposed his rules for poetry writing, whereby high pitches are countered by low ones and level and rising tones are countered by entering and falling tones. He also analyzed the eight types of poor matches between tones, initial consonants and ensuing vowels. In his representative work The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520) pointed out that rhythmical beauty in poetry can be created by using various tones alternately (i.e., countering even and rising tones with entering and falling tones). Likewise, beauty of echoing can be produced by adopting the same vowel at the end of each poetic line. Liu Xie extended this rule of tonal and rhythmical harmony to other genres of writing to both ensure readability and express his love for the beauty of chanting. His effort shows Southern Dynasties scholars' pursuit of the beauty of formalism, which later inspired Tang Dynasty literary figures to create neat and beautiful metrical poetry. The early theories of metrical beauty, drawing heavily from traditional musical terminology, later developed into the phonology of the Chinese language.
DETAILED>>This concept holds that too many flowers disfigure the branches of a tree (because this interferes with the overall beauty); and excessive body weight damages the bones (by reducing their ability to support the body). The term was coined in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons of Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) in the Southern Dynasties. Liu used this as a metaphor to illustrate the principle that elements such as image, sound and color serve to convey the sentiment of a piece of writing. If one overuses techniques and piles on the rhetoric to simulate the image, sound and color of things, or contrives too deliberately to create beauty, sound and color, it will harm the structure and content of the writing. In response to the literary style of the Qi and Liang dynasties, which emphasized rhetoric, rhythm, and form, Liu articulated the principles of integrating form and content and organizing rhetoric according to the needs of content expression, while pointing out that excessive pursuit of rhetoric and writing techniques not only gets in the way of theme and content, but also adds nothing to true formal beauty.
DETAILED>>Two opposing properties or qualities that objects and human beings possess. The term has three different meanings. First, when describing natural or manmade objects, gang (刚) means hard and rou (柔) means soft. Second, when describing human qualities, gang means strong and determined, while rou means gentle and modest. Third, when describing a style of governance or law enforcement, gang means stern and rou means lenient. Gang and rou are one of the manifestations of yin and yang. Their mutual opposition and accommodation are the basic causes of change, and they must achieve a certain balance within any object or action. Too much of either is inappropriate and dangerous.
DETAILED>>When describing something, literary writing should be able to go beyond external appearance to capture the essence so as to reflect a high degree of reality. Zhuangzi （369?-286BC）considered that the essence of life lies in the inner spirit rather than the physical form. One should forget one’s physical existence and give full free rein to the spirit. The late Tang poet Sikong Tu (837-908) adopted this view and believed that poetic description should likewise focus on essence rather than form. This concept of poetic creation and critique was later applied in calligraphy and painting as well.
DETAILED>>This term means changing element of evil in one’s intrinsic nature and developing acquired nature of goodness. This ethical principle is put forward by Xunzi （313？-238 BC）based on his belief that human nature is evil. Xunzi believes that the desire for external things is an intrinsic part of human nature. Unrestrained pursuit of such desire leads to rivalry between people and throws society into chaos. Therefore, it is imperative to rein in human desire and make people accept and observe rites and laws.
DETAILED>>This is a form of the existence of things when the boundary between things is broken and one thing transforms into another. The term “transformation of things” comes from Zhuangzi, in which the author Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) illustrated the concept in the fable Zhuangzi Dreamed of Becoming a Butterfly. He believed that the boundary and difference between oneself and others, between in a dream and being awake, and between all things can be broken. Consequently, one may achieve the transformation between one thing and another. However, if one holds onto the difference between oneself and the others, one cannot achieve the transformation of things, as if in a dream. If one is bent on transforming things, one may still fall into a dream.
Since ancient times in China, every school of thought has regarded love a core value. They all maintain that people must have general goodwill or sympathy for others, whether they know each other well or not, rich or poor. This is not only an important principle for handling interpersonal relations; it can also extend to become an international principle of opposing violence and raw power. Like the Confucian principle of putting oneself in another person's position, the principle of treating others the way you treat yourself champions benevolence, equality, and tolerance.
DETAILED>>This piece of advice on education was propounded in Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals. Everyone has his particular growth process. A teacher should reflect on his own experience, respond to students with deep empathy, and establish mutual understanding with them. It is not only a show of love in the education process, but also a sound foundation for effective education. This was a call for a new type of teacher-student relationship where the teacher was held in respect and the students loved. Such advice chimed with the Confucian concept of reciprocity, putting oneself in the position of others and having empathy.
DETAILED>>Ridding people of danger and suffering and enabling them to recover their health is the essential nature of medical treatment. It is also the noble aspiration or ideal of the physician, and it exemplifies the physician’s compassionate respect for human life and the humanistic spirit. This expression is now also used as an analogy in pointing out someone’s shortcomings or mistakes when criticizing or penalizing them, to enable them to overcome their shortcomings and correct their mistakes. Criticisms or penalties are merely measures taken to help someone; they target the behavior and not the person, and the goal is to bring someone with shortcomings or mistakes back onto the right path. This demonstrates the organic unity of firmly adhering to principles while showing leniency towards the person, and it is related to the concept “loving the people in accordance with rules of moral conduct.”
DETAILED>>This is an important concept put forward by Sunzi, the great strategist of ancient China. No matter what their position or level, the people in a state, an army or even a work unit should share the same aspiration, will and goal. Only then can all their wisdom be pooled together and their combat capacity be brought to the full. This concept stresses the importance of human spirit and solidarity, embodying one of the essential Chinese conceptions–“people first.”
DETAILED>>This military concept was formulated by Sunzi, the ancient military strategist. It means that in directing a battle, one must not adhere to a predetermined plan. Depending on the specific situation, rapid adjustments must be made to make the best use of one's strengths and to avoid one's weaknesses, just as water assumes different shapes as its flow follows the lie of the land. This is what is known today as using flexible tactics and strategies to gain the initiative on the battlefield.
This term suggests that when there is a good cause to use military force, the troops will be high in morale and valiant in fighting. The word shi (师) here is a general term for all military forces and operations. The word zhi (直) means a just cause. The word zhuang (壮) means powerful troops. The Chinese nation has always been wary of waging wars, believing that a war should be fought only for a just cause and that an army fighting for such a cause will have high morale and win the war.
DETAILED>>This term stands for deep and genuine emotions. The expression already existed in Pre-Qin times, but only during the late Ming Dynasty did it become a term in literary theory, when playwright Tang Xianzu (1550-1616) introduced the concept into literary creation. Influenced by the leftist faction of Wang Yangming’s philosophy of the mind, Tang Xianzu put special emphasis on “passion” in literary creation as opposed to “principle,” as was advocated by the Neo-Confucian School of Principle of the Song and Ming dynasties who suppresses emotions with "principle," and Tang criticized this strongly. He believed that “passion”was the driving force in literary creation, hence his theory of “true passion.” In his view, the world was not void of passion, and neither were human lives. The highest status of living a passionate life was to have true passion which would then lead to true beauty and thus achieve unity between truth and beauty. To him, true passion was best expressed through drama, as he claimed that “passion will turn into dreams, and dreams into drama.” His theory gave voice to spiritual and individual freedom. As such, it delivered a powerful blow against the feudal codes of ethics coming down from the Song and Ming dynasties.
DETAILED>>This refers to historians or history books that record historical facts in an objective and truthful way based on evidences without covering up anything. Objectivity is the ultimate criterion for judging historians or history books in historiography.
DETAILED>>To address the extravagance in social mores and in the style of writing of his time, Laozi advocated simple and natural lifestyles and literary presentations. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, men of letters valued natural and simple literary styles and were opposed to extravagant and superficial styles. This line of thought led to the emergence of great poets like Tao Yuanming（365 or 372 or 376-427）, and shaped literary writings to reflect direct thoughts and natural expressions. Subsequently, ancient Chinese literature and art took simplicity and naturalness as the highest aesthetic standards.
DETAILED>>The term means that the plot of scenes in a literary work, while imaginary, nonetheless have inner force and reflect reality in society. According to Buddhist and Daoist thought, society is transitory and shifting and people should not hold on to something unreal; rather, they should transcend delusions and recognise the true essence of things. As pointed out by literary and art critics, to gain keen appreciation of literary works and real life, people should learn to go beyond the imaginary aspect to grasp the truth of a creative work so as to enjoy its beauty. As a term in literary criticism, truth in imagination not only sheds light on the aesthetic function and significance of literature and arts, but also reveals a fundamental principle of literary and artistic creation, that is, art creation should be rooted in real life but not limited by it. Instead, it should aim at blending the truth of life and artistic imagination.
DETAILED>>This expression is a war fighting principle proposed by the ancient military thinker Sunzi in The Art of War. It means that a commander should have an accurate and full assessment of one’s own and the enemy’s deployment and not be distracted by temporary setbacks or difficulties. He should skillfully use unfavorable factors or situations to lull the enemy into a situation to his own advantage, and thus gain the upper hand. Such a military tactic is also used in social activities in which there is competition.
DETAILED>>In this context, two handles mean a sovereign ruler has the power to both confer rewards and mete out punishments. Both are basic ways of governance and have been subjects of discussion in different schools of thought. Ancient scholar Hanfeizi (280?-233 BC) attached great importance to the role of rewards and punishments in governance, believing that both should be given according to the law. One who abode by the law should be offered rewards and one who broke the law should be given punishment. This would make people behave in accordance with the law as they love rewards and fear punishment. He also emphasized that a sovereign should exercise his power in such a way so that rewards and punishments were given exactly as the law requires and that such power was not abused as a tool to seek personal gain.
DETAILED>>Things come into being and exist in two modes, which are used to describe how the eight trigrams are formed. As explained in The Book of Changes: “The Book of Changes involve taiji (太极 the supreme ultimate), which produces two modes. The two modes generate the four images, and the four images give birth to the eight trigrams.” Taiji divides itself into two mutually complementary but opposite parts, or modes. Ancient Chinese had different views as to what the modes represented. Some believed that from the point of view of the formation of the universe, the two modes could be understood as heaven and earth or as yin and yang. Others thought that as a term in divination, the two modes could refer to two groups formed by randomly dividing up 49 yarrow stalks used in divination, or the two lines, solid or broken, in the hexagrams of The Book of Changes.
DETAILED>>Harsh and cruel laws are more horrifying even than a tiger. The expression comes from The Book of Rites. The story goes that when Confucius （551-479 BC） was passing the foot of Mount Tai, he saw a woman weeping on a grave. He sent Zilu（542-480 BC） over to inquire. The woman said there were many tigers in the area and that she had lost three of her family to them, but because the local laws were not harsh, she did not wish to move away. Confucius sighed and said, “Tyranny is fiercer even than a tiger.” This is a criticism of harsh government, and an exhortation to rulers to reduce taxes and cut conscript labor, and to treat their subjects with compassion. It is an expression of Confucian principles of benevolent rule.
DETAILED>>The original Chinese character chou (醜) literally means “ghastly-looking like a drunkard.” It can then be extended to refer to people and things which are ugly, bad or despicable. This term contains two meanings. First, as a concept in Chinese thought and culture, it stands in contrast to “beauty,” indicating ugly appearance, as well as the state of being messy, unpolished, unharmonious or unreasonable. “Ugliness” is sometimes used to describe a type of appearance which violates mainstream aesthetic standards and thus is not accepted by the general public. Understanding and accepting the notion of “ugliness” is a breakthrough and extension of the definition of “beauty.” Second, the term also refers to clowns who perform funny-looking and amusing characters in a traditional Chinese opera, with a small patch of white chalk painted around the nose.
DETAILED>>This term describes the quality of loftiness or primitive simplicity, and is used primarily in literary criticism to refer to an ancient nobility, an aspiration or sentiment, or an artistic style of historical gravity. “Loftiness” here suggests transcending the limitation of space, not being tied down by concrete objects, thoughts, moods or wishes and conveys a sense of staying aloof from current affairs and worldly conventions. “Primitive simplicity” here means breaking loose from the confinement of time and traveling back to the remote past. It also implies an unadorned antiquity or austere dignity. By combining these two concepts, the term aims to weaken the imprint of its time and to transcend the bounds of reality, reaching for a normally unattainable realm linking the present to the past. Sometimes, this term is also used to refer to an elevated state of being attained by noble-minded persons.
DETAILED>>This
term refers to a relaxed and unencumbered approach to people and things. To be
unattached, one needs to keep at arm's length when he comes into contact with
other people or things. He should not be too detached, thus unable to have
contact with people or objects and know them intimately. Neither should he become too close to people or objects and be
influenced by them. He should stay
comfortably independent from the people or object under study so as to gain a
deeper understanding of them.
This term means to find out the truth of things, and act accordingly to succeed in what one does. Kaiwu (开物) means to reveal the truth of things and understand their intrinsic relations and rules. Chengwu (成务) means to use proper methods to do things successfully according to their intrinsic relations and rules. This was a perception and guide to action that the ancient Chinese learned from The Book of Changes and everyday life, which they used to understand the world, change the world, and serve themselves. This concept represents a fundamental principle of social science.
DETAILED>>The term means to know heaven’s significance to people. To the ancient Chinese thinkers, “heaven” could mean different things, and it has an inexorable impact on human affairs in various ways. Hence, given heaven’s influence, it is crucial for people to understand heaven if they are to control themselves and the world in which they live. Because of the complexities in the meaning of heaven and in the relationship between heaven and humans, there are also different forms and paths for understanding heaven. For example, Mencius (372?-289 BC) felt that one could understand heaven by fully realizing the innate goodness in one’s nature, whereas Xunzi (313?-238 BC) felt that understanding heaven meant appropriately meeting the needs of one’s natural physical functions in a way which accorded with the rules of propriety.
DETAILED>>First appeared in Mencius, the term zhiyan (知言) means to be able to tell whether various statements are truthful, right and good, in order to gain true knowledge. Yangqi (养气) refers to nurturing one’s mind and righteousness. Mencius (372?-289BC) emphasized that he's good at cuiltivating the noble spirit in himsef, which is then displayed in outward verbal articulation,and others can also understand this person's inner world from his writing. Based on a philosophical proposition, this literary concept highlights the influence of a writer’s self-cultivation on expressions used in writings and stresses that one’s righteousness can enhance his learning, moral character, outlook and temperament, which will ultimately manifest themselves as the vigorous style or appeal of their writings. The style of language is determined by the author's inner spiritual cultivation and his noble character. The Chinese literary theory of "resonance and empathy" in the later time is deeply affected by this view.
DETAILED>>The philosopher Hui Shi’s (370?-310? BC) approach to commonality and difference among things was to unite them, regarding commonalities and differences as relative. There are bound to be small or great similarities and differences between any two concrete things. If we look at them from the point of view of commonality, all things have something in common, so they can be said to be similar. If we look at them from the point of view of difference, no two things are completely the same, so they are all different. Whether things are in common or different depends on the perspective from which we look at them. This led Hui Shi to determine that commonalities and differences are not separate; that is, they are unified.
DETAILED>>Literally, this term means “united, we’ll be as solid as a fortress.” With concerted effort, people collectively can generate tremendous strength and be able to overcome all difficulties. Zhi, the second character in the term, means will, and cheng, the last character, means the wall of a fortress. The whole term implies three most important elements: ( 1 ) the factor of human capability; ( 2 ) human spirit and courage; and ( 3 ) unity of the people.
Only when a country has accomplished unity within can it be able to consider expansion and development outside. “Unity within” means that people live in amity and are united as one. “Expansion without” originally meant to start a war against a neighboring state. Now it is used to mean external development in order to gain more benefit. Sound internal development and unity in a country are prerequisites and guarantee for external development. This is applicable to a country, an enterprise, or an organization. It demonstrates that the Chinese people set great store on their internal development and uphold the principle of peace.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the time of peace and prosperity envisioned by Confucian scholars when all the people under heaven are one family, equal, friendly, and helpful to each other (as opposed to xiaokang [小康] – moderate prosperity). Confucianism takes universal harmony as the supreme stage of the development of the human society, somewhat similar to the idea of utopia in the West. Its main features are: All power and wealth belong to the whole of society; all people are equal and live and work in peace and contentment; everyone is cared for by society; everything is used to its fullest and everyone works to his maximum potential. In the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, the term referred to the concepts of socialism, communism, or cosmopolitanism that had been introduced to China from the West.
DETAILED>>Universal love, equal affection for all individuals, is a basic concept of the Mohist School of thought, as opposed to the principle of differentiated love advocated by the Confucian School. Universal love emphasizes that you should love others as you love yourself, and love others’ relatives and people of other states as you love your own so that all people would love one another equally. This principle of affection has no regard for blood ties or social status. It is an affection that is exercised equally without differentiating between individuals, families, or nations. If such a principle could be realized, we could avoid conflicts between persons, clans, or nations and bring equal benefit to all.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the universal principle that governs all things. The ancient Chinese believed that things are all governed by their own underlying principles. This term refers to the intrinsic nature of objects and humans; and it also refers to patterns that govern both the movements of things as well as the words and actions of humans. For some scholars, the focus was on how different things are governed by different principles, so that these principles represent their diversity. Others, however, believed that even though principles governing different things vary, ultimately they are the same in nature, making the universal principle governing everything.
DETAILED>>First proposed in the book Xunzi, this term refers to fundamental principles which apply to different things. It means that by differentiating things according to their categories and by understanding these categories, a sage could acquire universal principles which apply to all things. By following universal principles, one can ensure that different categories of things can all find their proper places within a unified order. At the same time, new things can also be integrated into the existing order.
The original meaning of the term is the eave and beam of a house, while its extended meaning is time and space as well as the whole world composed of limitless time and space. The first character yu (宇) means heaven and earth as well as all the directions of north, south, east, west, the above, and the below. The second character zhou（宙）means all of time, the past, present, and future. Together, the term means infinite space and endless time. In Chinese philosophy, “theories of the universe” are concerned with the existence of the world in an ontological sense, and with its process of evolution.
DETAILED>>This term refers to moral conduct that is discreet and unobtrusive. The Daoists believe this is the highest manifestation of morality in a ruler. Dao is the source of all beings and things, and is manifested through wuwei (无为) or non-action. By being discreet and unobtrusive in his moral conduct, the ruler thus emulates Dao. Xuande (玄德) requires the ruler to exercise restraint in his use of authority to avoid interfering with the natural state of his people, which he should comply with and maintain.
DETAILED>>This term refers to one of the twenty-four styles of poetry as propounded by SikongTu(837-908 ) of the Tang Dynasty and falls into a very important classic aesthetic category, An unrestrained and ingenuous spirit reflects a state of “carelessness” in poetic creation, whereby the poet allows his inner self to encounter external things without constraint, It does not choose any particular scenery and subject matter. It neither shows favor to any particular technique or means of expression, nor does it pay undue attention to wording. As a poetic style and a creative mindset, an unrestrained and ingenuous spirit does not mean arbitrariness, petulance or lack of method, Instead, it aims to shake off the influence of any preconceived idea or subconscious thought, yet respect prior cognitive and aesthetic experience. It represents not only a natural, quietly elegant, and unrestrained aesthetic style, but also a magnanimous mind and an elevated state of being.
DETAILED>>“Unrestricted name” is a term of classification used by the Mohist School. It is a general name for ordinary things. The Mohists stressed the importance of properly naming things in different ways to reflect their real nature. They had three ways of naming things: unrestricted, classified, and private. “Unrestricted name” is most general, such as the name of wu (物thing). Wu is used to refer to all objects.
DETAILED>>This expression means to uphold the law by means of power. This is a way of governance advocated by Hanfeizi (280?-233 BC). Law is what all people have to abide by, regulating people’s conduct as well as the judgment of right or wrong, good or evil. “Power” refers to the position and strength of the ruler. “Upholding law by means of power” requires the ruler to use his power to ensure that the law is enforced through reward and punishment so as to maintain social order and social values.
This concept emphasizes that the writing techniques, the meaning of the objects and the sentiment of the work should be highly compatible and integrated. If there is only technique without a rich and beautiful meaning, it is not clever; if there is only meaning without suitable technique to express it, it is not rich and beautiful either. The first part of the phrase was first used by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties to praise the work of Qu Yuan (340?-278? BC). Now it is extended to refer to the artistic realm of high purity and fragrance in literary works. The term bilei yuyi (比类寓意) refers to the use of analogies, metaphors and symbolism to describe the appearance of unknown things by using the similarities and differences of familiar things to inspire the reader’s imagination.
DETAILED>>The essence of poetry is to convey feelings and aspirations through fine wording. Fine wording involves the proper arrangement of words and sentences, while the voicing of feelings and aspirations constitutes the material content of poetry. Neither of these aspects should be neglected in favor of the other. The term taken as a whole reflects the Confucian view on the relationship between form and substance; that is, writing should achieve a balance between these twin demands. If the writer pays too much attention to form, his writing will sound supercilious. If he is over mindful of substance, it will sound crude and devoid of artistic merit. Therefore, a good combination of form and substance should be the primary principle of poetic creation.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to the act of borrowing physical imagery to subtly convey the author’s personal message. It was a means of creating prose and poetry in ancient China. Xiang (象) can indicate either a physical image or more broadly any real or fictitious thing in the world. Yi (意) means “authorial intent” or “an author’s personal feelings and thoughts.” All this can be traced back to The Book of Changes, Zhuangzi, and The Book of Songs. In the former, hexagrams are used to symbolize various things, phenomena and events, as well as corresponding cognition, volition and feelings, thus creating symbolic devices. In the latter, real or fictitious objects and scenery are used to express feelings, thus creating analogy and association. Analogy here involves the use of a single image to show an explicit message; to adopt an image is to convey a message. Association, however, embeds an intricate and nuanced message in less defined objects and scenery; in this case there is no clear correspondence between an image and a message. In a sense, association can be likened to symbolism or metaphor. Although analogy and association, too, use imagery to convey meaning, they do so either because the author must be ambiguous if he wants to fully express himself or because he must be indirect in order to avoid embarrassment. The use of imagery to express meaning, on the other hand, aims to reveal wide-ranging sensations, feelings and sudden enlightenment through a rich reserve of imagery. It has remained a constant means of creating classic Chinese poetry, but it also indicates the spirit of ancient Chinese poets in daring to be innovative.
DETAILED>>This expression, which is from The Book of Songs, was originally a subtle piece of advice to King Xuan of Zhou （？-782 BC） to recruit talented recluses to work for his country. Later, it became an allegory of using criticism from others to correct one’s own mistakes, and drawing on the experiences and practices of other people or other countries to improve oneself. This phrase expresses the open-mindedness of the Chinese people and their eagerness to benefit from others’ practices.
DETAILED>>Coined in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, this concept means to euphemistically and subtly express the authors’ thoughts using objects to demonstrate their sorrowful and despondent mood. This is the general mood and artistic characteristics of the “Nineteen Old Poems,” and illustrates poetry’s aesthetic characteristics of depicting objects in order to express feelings in a soul-stirring way.
DETAILED>>This is an ancient Chinese belief on the role of war. The first “war” means a just war, the second an unjust one. A just war is waged to resist a war that has been forced upon one. It is not of one’s choosing, but is fought to defend the country and the people from imposed violence, in order to ultimately end the war and restore peace and stability. It expresses the “civil” spirit of the Chinese nation that believes in justice and peace. It is similar in meaning to “stopping war is a true craft of war.”
DETAILED>>Utmost happiness is an inner peace that transcends any judgment as to whether we are happy or not. Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) held that happiness should be dictated solely by the heart. If we measure happiness against a worldly criterion, we may lose sight of life’s essential purpose. If we are driven by emotions and base desires, harm and loss may be the result. Our happiness in fact depends on our judgment of loss or gain. However, loss or gain is relative and subject to change. Only when we totally forget this question can we attain utmost happiness. This term reflects the spiritual magnanimity and the open, pluralistic worldview of ancient Chinese scholars, while urging them to greater effort at self-reflection, criticism, and transcendence.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the pure heart and soul of a newborn babe, untainted by worldly affairs. Most often, it refers to adults who retain the utter innocence of an infant, holding themselves aloof from worldly goals. In the field of political ethics, the term highlights humans’ natural kindness, calling for empathy with others and child-like wonder for truth. In literary creation and aesthetics, it refers mainly to a pure state of being filled with subtle feelings and noble ideals, transcending all worldly pursuits and sophistication, and rejecting an overly rational mentality lacking aesthetic judgment. The term promotes an ideal personality worshiped by ancient Chinese and represents a laudable type of character often portrayed in literary works.
DETAILED>>This term means testing for verification and validity. Wang Chong (27-97?) felt that verification and validation is the only method or standard for determining the correctness of an argument. Whether or not an idea is correct cannot be determined solely by empty words or cleverness; rather, it has to be proved through “verification and validation.”To Wang Chong, the “verification and validation” of an argument should not be based only on sensory experiences. Correct ideas can only be arrived at by using rational thinking to draw inferences from sensory experiences.
DETAILED>>Ji (机) or verve here refers to artistic verve, or vitality, and focuses on the natural ingenuity reflected in the conceptualization and structure of a work of art, while qu (趣) or appeal here refers to aesthetic appeal, emphasizing narrative and verbal techniques used in creating images and expressing emotions. This concept is mainly used in theories of play-writing, and also in poetics and theories of painting and calligraphy. It was put forth as a concept for artistic creation by Li Yu ( 1611- 1680 ), a scholar of the late Ming and early Qing period. He advocated that plays should show natural ingenuity in their structural conceptualization as well as deploy lively and appealing language, and that literary creation should be integrated with real life, which means real life should inspire literature and literature should capture real life. Li Yu’s theory exerted a considerable influence on the development of classic drama theories in China. As a technique for artistic creation, the term jiqu articulated a specific way to express the beauty of an art work both in its content and form. It argued against trite and obsolete expressions, and showed an interest in pursuing artistic perspicacity and transcendental beauty resplendent with vivid images and lively expressions. This concept is also used in poetry criticism later.
DETAILED>>This proposition is made in Huainanzi compiled under the sponsorship of Liu An (179?-122BC), King of Huainan, in the Western Han Dynasty. Earlier Chinese scholars had proposed that war should be seen in a wider context of state policy, not just as military actions. According to this thinking, war is a part of state policy, not independent of it, and it is state policy that eventually dictates the direction of war and whether it ends in victory or defeat. This is quite similar to Clausewitz’ statement in his work On War that “War is the continuation of policy by other means.”
DETAILED>>The term refers to vim and vigor found in a great work of art. It first emerged among comments on famed persons in the Wei and Jin period. Later, it was brought into the field of artistic criticism. The Tang Dynasty’s theory on calligraphy adopted the term to describe the artistic features of a calligraphic work. In his essay titled “Subsequent Commentaries on Calligraphy,” Jiang Kui (1155?-1209) of the Song Dynasty further argued, on the basis of the concept of “vim and vigor,” that the merit of a calligraphic work is jointly determined by the calligrapher’s moral character, origin of his style, skill, innovation and the kind of brush and paper he uses. The term gained its popularity when Ming Dynasty’s Mao Kun (1512-1601) used it in his critical essays. He praised Records of the Historian as its classic example and spoke highly of Ouyang Xiu’s (1007-1072) essays for their vim and vigor. His criterion was to see whether a smooth flow of narration was ensured and complicated nuances of feeling admirably expressed in an essay.
First used in “A Letter of Response to Li Yi” by Han Yu (768-824), this concept means that when a writer is virtuous and well-educated, his work will be rich in content and have a powerful message with the use of appropriate language and expressions. To make writings expressive, harmoniously rhymed and inspirational, their authors should have a lofty character, Han Yu aimed to learn the ancient thoughts by gaining a full understanding of ancient texts. He believed that a strong inner aspiration and a noble character are as important as linguistic expression. If one has moral integrity and is free from distraction, well-educated, passionate,and has an active mind, then he can use all his knowledge, life experience and creative experience to write good articles, But this does not mean that Han Yu ignored the form of language. Appropriate language requires mastery of the rules and techniques of writing. He emphasizes, however, that writing should deliver a good message. Good self-cultivation creates an appropriate and natural form of linguistic expression, thus enhancing the writing’s appeal.
DETAILED>>The term means likening certain characteristics of things in nature, including plants and animals, to human virtues. When extended to the domain of literary appreciation, it generally involves likening desirable objects to a noble personality. To perceive a natural phenomenon as a reflection or symbol of human characteristics is typical of the Confucian School, which takes aesthetic quality as a moral standard for people as well as literature and arts. Likening humans to nature implies that appreciation of nature is actually appreciation of humanity itself, particularly its moral character. It later became a technique employed in rhetoric and poetry.
DETAILED>>This refers to people’s innate moral nature. The term first appeared in The Book of Rites. Ancient Chinese people widely believed that inborn human nature had feelings and a craving for knowledge of the outside world. However, they had different views as to whether morals were included in innate human nature. The majority of Confucian scholars held that human nature had in itself a basic sense of benevolence, righteousness, rites and wisdom, and together they constituted the virtuous nature. Still these scholars maintained that self-cultivation was required for such nature to develop into conscious benevolence.
DETAILED>>Virtuous people are sure to write fine works which will be passed on to later generations. According to Confucianism, the moral character of a writer determines the value of his work, virtuous people would naturally write well, but those who wrote well might not necessarily be virtuous. Therefore, authors should write to disseminate moral values; virtue and writings should be consistent. However, later Confucian scholars sometimes overemphasized the influence that ethics and the authors’ moral character had on their writings to the neglect of the characteristics and values of literary creation per se.
DETAILED>>Vital energy refers to the finest and most subtle energy. The earliest detailed explanation of vital energy is found in Guanzi. According to the book, the finest and most subtle energy is a concrete manifestation of dao. All things with shapes and all human beings are made up of vital energy; one’s life, sense, and intelligence are also believed to derive from vital energy.
DETAILED>>The term refers to vitality which is needed for the human or animal body to sustain its life and which reflects the state of life. It is something one is born with, representing the body’s needs of material things. A person exhibits different levels of vitality at different stages of life, reflecting changes in the strength of life. Vitality is unstable in youth； it reaches its peak in the prime of life, and in old age it wanes. Furthermore, different people have different levels of vitality, some overflowing with vigor, while others are subdued. People’s vitality can be changed by means of rites, music and through education； it is the basis for shaping a person’s moral and emotional trait.
DETAILED>>Void and peace mean that all distractions, such as desires and rational thoughts, should be dispelled to attain peace and purity of the soul. The idea of void and peace was first proposed by Laozi and Zhuangzi（369？-286 BC）, the founders of Daoism, and then used by Xunzi （313？-238 BC） to refer to a state of mental concentration. Such a state of mind is similar to the psychological conditions in appreciation of works of literature and art, which are characterized by being totally free from the awareness of oneself and the outside world, and free from any urge and desire. Therefore, thinkers and literary critics of earlier times used this term to explain the state of mind in literary and artistic creation and appreciation. It stressed the need for spiritual freedom in artistic creation, suggesting that this is an important precondition for reaching the highest level of aesthetic appreciation.
DETAILED>>The aim of war is to stop violence and eliminate evil. The people in ancient China regarded war as a violent action contrary to human nature, to be taken only as a last resort. If war was inevitable, it should be fought to uphold justice. This view of war still holds true today.
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Waxing and waning are two ways in which things change. These two ways are opposites, but they also alternate with each other. When something has grown to a certain point, it will begin to decline, and having declined to a certain degree it will begin to grow again. All things between heaven and earth are in a process of waxing and waning in compliance with their internal laws. People need to grasp this law and act accordingly as things wax and wane.
The way of earth refers to the law by which the earth and all things on it exist and undergo change. The ancient Chinese believed in the oneness of the heaven, earth, and human being. Thus they associated the way of earth with the way of heaven and the way of man. They also considered that the way of heaven and the way of earth establish the order of human relationships and the norms of human affairs. However, the ancients did not agree on their conception of the way of earth. According to some philosophers, the earth and all things on it follow a law that is different from the way of heaven, while others believed the law governing the earth and all things on it is the same as the way of heaven in essence but different in manifestation.
DETAILED>>The way of heaven refers to the basic rule governing the existence and changes of all things between heaven and earth （as opposed to the “way of man”）. Ancient Chinese interpreted the “way of heaven” in different ways. First, some believed that “the way of heaven,” especially the celestial phenomena relating to the movements of the sun, the moon, and the stars, foretell or dictate the success or failure of human affairs. In ancient times, designated officials predicted human affairs through observing celestial phenomena. Second, some believed that “the way of heaven” was the source or the basis of man’s moral conduct and of orderly human relations. One should comply with “the way of heaven,” in both words and deeds, so should human relations； and people should recognize and develop the moral nature bestowed upon by heaven so as to gain access to “the way of heaven.” Third, still others thought that there were no particular correlations between “the way of heaven” on the one hand, and moral conduct in the human world, human relations, as well as misfortune and fortune in human affairs on the other.
DETAILED>>The way of man refers to the code of conduct that people must observe and also the relations and norms that keep human society on the right track. The way of man stands in contrast to the way of heaven. When Western culture was introduced to China in modern times, the term gained the meaning of respect and care for people’s lives, well-being, dignity, freedom, and individuality.
DETAILED>>Weapons are tools of death; war is wicked and against morality. The original meaning of bing (兵) is “weapon” and is extended to mean “army”; zheng (争) means “conflict” and “struggle” and here means “war”; nide (逆德) means inhuman, contrary to benevolence and compassion. The ancient Chinese, including military strategists, all considered the use of force and war fearsome, only to be employed as a last resort, and that even if military force was deployed, the principles of benevolence and righteousness should be adhered to. This is another expression of high respect Chinese have for benevolence and enlightenment in the spirit of upholding peace as embodied in the idea of wen.
The wedding is an important ceremony in human life, through which a man and woman become a married couple. In the eyes of ancient Chinese people, it was a ceremony affirming the bond of love between man and woman, heralding a husband-wife relationship of mutual respect and forming a family unit for orderly human life. The bond between husband and wife coming from two clans with two different surnames also served to foster an intimate relationship between the two clans, and ensured the multiplication of family members and the continuation of future generations. In modern society, many changes have happened to the form and significance of the wedding ceremony.
This term indicates a willingness to hear and follow admonishments. In ancient China, there was a time-honored system of court admonishers. Such officials gave admonishments to the monarch against possible wrong-doings, and could be found in the imperial court of every dynasty, though the official titles could differ. This practice was dictated by the fundamental nature of the ancient Chinese political system itself, where an autocratic monarchy shaped by the Qin and Han dynasties continued for over two thousand years. This system was marked by the monarch’s monopolization of legislative, judicial, and administrative powers. A consequent flaw was that the monarch could easily harm the fundamental interests of the dynasty with his arbitrary decisions and willful actions, thus intensifying the crisis of the autocratic regime. In order to address that flaw, each imperial court set up a system of court admonishers. In Chinese history, there are numerous tales of courageous court admonishers who gave their honest opinions even when faced with displeasure from monarchs, and of monarchs who willingly listened to outspoken admonishers.
DETAILED>>The underpinnings of social livelihood and well-being are fundamentally shaped by hard work. This perspective sends a clear message to those in positions of power to acknowledge the sweat, struggle, and resolve of everyday people. They should neither trivialize people’s effort to make ends meet nor add to their load. Instead, they should provide necessary material conditions, appropriate policies, and institutional guarantees for people’s livelihood. In parallel, this perspective underscores the value of hard work – a quality ingrained within the very essence of the Chinese ethos.
DETAILED>>The term means what is formless or has no formal substance yet. It generally indicates the basis of physical things. The term “what is above form” comes from The Book of Changes and is used as the opposite of “what is under form.” “Form” indicates physical shape. “What is above form” refers to the state before a physical shape emerges, namely, formlessness. That which is formless is called “dao.”
DETAILED>>The term means what has a form or what has a formal substance. It generally indicates existing and concrete things. The term “what is under form” comes from The Book of Changes. It is used as the opposite of “what is above form.”“Form” indicates physical shape. “What is under form” refers to the state after a physical shape has emerged, namely, physical existence. That which has a form is called “an object.” What is under form takes what is above form as the basis of its existence.
DETAILED>>If two people or armies cross paths on a narrow road, the boldest will prevail. This was part of the military thinking of Zhao She, a well-known general of the State of Zhao during the Warring States Period. He meant that if one meets the enemy and cannot avoid a confrontation, one must rouse one’s fighting spirit, courage and resolve to win, and that this is actually what makes victory possible. The term has the similar meaning to the expression “fighting is based on courage.” The spirit also applies to other periods of difficulty or hardship.
DETAILED>>When drinking water, one should not forget its source. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Yu Xin (513-581) was forced to leave home and stay away from his home state for more than 20 years. Often homesick, he wrote in one of his essays that he always thought of the source of the water whenever he drank form the river, expressing his longing for his hometown in the Southern Dynasties. Eventually this became an idiom: when drinking water one should think of its source, implying that one should never forget his origin and always be grateful. This virtue has always been highly praised.
DETAILED>>This phrase means that one should behave ethically and never dodge one’s responsibility. Ren (仁 benevolence) is the highest virtue upheld by Confucius（551-479 BC）. In general, it refers to everything that is right to do, namely things compatible with moral principles and social justice. The term is similar in meaning to “committing oneself completely out of a sense of duty,” and “feeling morally obliged.” It promotes a positive attitude that takes safeguarding morality and justice as one’s own responsibility and dares to shoulder and execute that responsibility.
DETAILED>>The ancient Chinese came to know early that the nature or state of things change to their opposite under certain circumstances. In the Northern Song Dynasty, Cheng Yi (1033-1107) gave a detailed description of the rules of such change when he argued that “when reaching an extreme, things are bound to revert to their opposites.” This view believes that things tend to change when reaching an extreme in their nature or state. In such a state, things inevitably transform themselves into their opposite.
DETAILED>>This term means that when you see a person of high caliber, you should try to emulate and equal the person. Xian (贤) refers to a person of virtue and capability； qi (齐) means to emulate and reach the same level. This was what Confucius（551-479 BC） taught his students to do. The term has become a motto for cultivating one’s moral character and increasing one’s knowledge. The main point of this term is to encourage people to discover the strengths of others and take initiative to learn from those who are stronger than themselves in terms of moral qualities, knowledge, and skills so as to make constant progress. The term embodies the Chinese nation’s spirit for good, enterprise, and tenacious self-renewal.
DETAILED>>Once the bird hunt is over, the bow should be put away. This alludes to the fact that once a war is over, the wartime powers given to civil and military officials should be revoked or diminished. In ancient China, this often occurred when the country shifted from a state of war to one of peace; to a certain extent, it ensured the security of the central government and the civil and military officials, and was conducive to the resumption of the country’s normal and stable governance. In later years, this expression came to mean that after a task was achieved, those who had worked toward its success were abandoned.
DETAILED>>The full quote from Guanzi reads: “When the granaries are full, the people follow appropriate rules of conduct, and when there is enough to eat and wear, the people know honor and shame.” Here “granaries” and “eat and wear” mean the material conditions of life, while “rules of conduct” and “honor and shame” represent the social and moral principles of a society, as well as the systems and spiritual culture that underpin it. The quote highlights the relationship between material life and morality, that is to say, the former is the basis for the latter, and morality and social norms are the product of a certain degree of material development. Without the basic assurances for life, the best systems will not be followed, and the moral standards of the people will remain low. At all times, governance should focus first on improving the material conditions of a society. This is a very practical concept of state governance.
DETAILED>>This means adapting one’s approach to changing conditions. The saying is from the chapter “The Five Vermin” in Hanfeizi. According to this work, many changes in social conditions occur in response to changing times, and people should adjust their approaches accordingly to keep up with new developments instead of just following past practices. Most scholars of the Legalist School held similar views. This argument was a source of inspiration for those who pursue reform and modernization endeavors.
What is justified and fair is bound to work; acting with determination is bound to succeed. This statement emphasizes that being on justified ground and acting decisively will enable one to ultimately achieve the goal, which is similar to the current view that people should both be self-motivated and respect objective laws.
When worse comes to the worst, things and events at their extremes will reverse and turn for the better. Tai (泰) and pi (否), two of the hexagram names in The Book of Changes, represent the positive and negative aspects of things, with one unimpeded and the other blocked, one faced with favorable conditions and the other with adversity, and one good and the other bad. In the view of ancient Chinese, all things cycle around and forever change. When they reach a certain critical point, they will transform into the opposite of their extreme characteristics. The term reveals the dialectical movements of development and change. It gives moral support and hope to people experiencing difficulties, and encourages people to be optimistic, seize the opportunity, work hard, and turn things around. From a dialectical perspective, it represents a sense of preparing for the worst.
DETAILED>>The more complete rendering of this concept is“while seeking to establish oneself,one strives also to establish others; while seeking to enhance oneself, one strives also to enhance others.”The concept was coined by Confucius (551-479BC) as an expression of his doctrine of being considerate, which requires people to understand and be considerate of others with their own feelings and aspirations, and putting themselves in the position of others. In terms of preferences and pursuits, if one wants to be established and enhance oneself, one must understand that others may want the same, and should assist them to do so.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the evaluative judgment or view of the people in a country or region, on an issue, phenomenon or incident which touches on their common interest and which has broad societal meaning. Ancient Chinese often took the “mandate of heaven” to be the basis and highest concept for the legitimacy of political authority and for policymaking, but in fact they often regarded the “will of the people” to be the principal source, content, and manifestation of the “mandate of heaven.” They also considered it to be the fundamental principle of a country’s governance, and thought that having or losing the will of the people determined the rise or fall of a country and political power as well as the development of state affairs. It is the core of the Chinese concept of the people as the foundation of the state. All enlightened Chinese statesmen past and present have regarded the “will of the people” to be the most important factor in governance.
DETAILED>>This concept means that the ideal way to win a war is not through fighting. The purpose of starting a war is to defeat the enemy; but defeating the enemy does not necessarily require a war, nor is war the ultimate means to triumph over the enemy. Direct use of force is the last resort, not the preferred option. In the face of conflict and rivalry, one should develop more effective ways of winning victory without using force. Strive to fully prepare oneself in every way, and make oneself strong enough to respond to all eventualities, to the extent that no opponent will emerge. This is the fundamental way to win victory.
DETAILED>>This saying comes from Sunzi, the well-known military strategist, who said that the best military strategy is “to defeat the enemy without going to war.” He listed two ways for achieving this: ( 1 ) the use of stratagems to foil the enemy’s plans; ( 2 ) the use of diplomacy to totally isolate the enemy. The opponent is thus forced into a hopeless situation and compelled to submit. This is an over-arching vision of military strategy that combines politics, force, and diplomacy, and has been the ideal of generations of successful commanders. This thinking is prevalent up to the present day in international relations, “business wars,” and other areas. At its heart is the dictum “build yourself and form alliances.”
DETAILED>>When wealth is equal and its distribution is fair, people will not feel there is poverty. This was a concept of political governance propounded by Confucius (551-479 BC). Jun (均) means fair and balanced, with everyone receiving a share. Pin (贫poor), in contrast with fu (富rich), means receiving less. In Confucius’ view, whether a person is rich or poor is not determined only by the absolute value of his wealth; it is determined rather by its relative value or the gap between the differences in income. If the gap is excessively large, some will feel poor even if the absolute value of their wealth is considerable; on the other hand, if the gap is not large, people will not feel poor even if the absolute value of their wealth is low. The basic spirit of this view is that those who govern should not one-sidedly pursue an increase in total wealth. Rather, they should prioritize fairness, ensure reasonable distribution and maintain wealth equality, so as to prevent the emergence of a large gulf between rich and poor, and to avoid worsening social conflicts.
DETAILED>>Within the Four Seas means within the territory of China. The ancient Chinese thought China’s territory was surrounded by the Four Seas (the East, West, North, and South seas). Within the Four Seas refers to the landmass surrounded by the Four Seas. It reflected the ancient Chinese belief that the seas were the natural boundary of a country, demonstrating the influence of an agriculture civilization.
DETAILED>>Without the trust of the people, the government will not be stable. Chinese people have since antiquity put high value on “trust” (good faith). Confucius（551-479 BC） applied it to the relationship between officials and the people and saw it as a crucial factor in the stability of the state. What this means is that the government or the ruler should be honest in dealing with the people, not acting recklessly with force or power, so that the people will trust the authorities and act in good faith in regard to them. This is the solid basis and guarantee of state power. It is also an extension of the notion of “people are the foundation of the state.”
DETAILED>>Confucian scholars believed that nothing is possible without sincerity, which is the basic principle or law followed by humans and all things. It is a process in which humans and all things give full play to their inherent nature or essential properties. Sincerity is what enables them to exist and improve themselves, and it is an ideal state of both their interaction and integration. In terms of human activities, it is obvious that without sincerity, nothing can be accomplished. This notion stresses that sincerity is both real and fundamental, that humans have subjectivity, and that with sincerity, they can achieve unity with the outer world.
DETAILED>>This quotation, from the chapter “Epistolary Writing” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, means that language is a necessary means of conveying the spiritual landscape of human beings generation after generation, that writings are meaningful and useful in faithfully recording and sincerely expressing human thoughts and emotions, and that all words written down shall be used as outlets for true feelings and views, rather than manifestations of superficiality or vehicles for deceit and dissimulation. “Pent-up feelings” here refers not only to worries for oneself, but also to concerns over the status quo and the future of the country, the nation, and the people. “Elegance” describes one’s manners and temperament, which radiate touching appeal as a result of one’s emotions and will. Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), the Southern Dynasties author of The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, holds that the significance of writing lies in the wide and lasting dissemination of the spirit and elegance of sages.
DETAILED>>Words cannot fully express the fundamental understanding of the world. According to The Book of Changes, words are inadequate for expressing what one means and that was why the hexagram images were made to convey the ideas of the sages. Xun Can (209?-238), Wang Bi (226-249), and other metaphysicians of the Wei and Jin dynasties further elucidated this concept. Their understanding of the relationship between language and thinking was determined by their understanding of the ontological existence or original source of the world. They believed that the world’s ontological existence or original source was wu (无), which was beyond anything tangible. Wu had no specific form or attribute, and it was therefore impossible to name or describe it. Thus, language was found to have its limitations in expressing thought.
DETAILED>>Speech and writing come from feelings and thoughts. This concept is used by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532? ) of the Southern Dynasties to explain the origin of literary creation in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It suggests that feelings and thoughts are the sources of language and all literary creation as well. Only when imbued with true feelings and thoughts will writers be able to produce good prose and poetry. It reflects ancient Chinese people’s emphasis on the inner world of writers as creative subjects. Liu Xie also makes it clear that the process whereby words come from the heart is natural rather than artificial.
DETAILED>>This expression means one should both work diligently and be ready to mix with others. Ye (业work) originally meant studies; later, it came to mean one’s job or duty. Qun (群others) referred to fellow students and friends but it also included team members and society at large. Working diligently is about one’s attitude to work, while keeping good company is about one’s need to have proper social behavior. They are basic qualities required of an educated person or a person with a job, and are also the basis of a good and healthy society.
This term, concerning the motivation in poetry writing, was first used by the Southern Dynasty poetry theorist Zhong Rong (?-518？) in his The Critique of Poetry. He emphasized the impact upon a poet's creative activities of seasonal changes and encounters between humans, maintaining that the poet uses his work to show his inner feelings and aspirations. Zhong's poetic aesthetics, while recognizing the role of the outer world in inspiring poets, also valued the unique aesthetic value of feelings to poetry. This view was clearly more mature than that of "writing poetry for moral indoctrination only" held by Han Dynasty Confucian scholars.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to writing ci poems in the same way other poems are written. In the history of the development of ci poems, one school represented by Li Qingzhao (1084-1151?) emphasized that ci poems should mainly express one’s emotions and mood and that the rhythm should be harmonized so that ci poems can be sung. Hence, they criticized the way of writing ci poems just as other poems, which they believed failed to demonstrate the distinctive features and aesthetic requirements of the ci poems genre. Another school represented by Su Shi (1037-1101) refused to be bound by the musical requirements of ci poems, believing that meaning of poems should not be sacrificed for the sake of musical rhythm. Such poets were more flexible in choosing words and their ci poems covered a wide variety of subjects. This expanded the subjects of ci poems and reduced their monotony as works on tender feelings of men and women, thus creating new styles of ci poems. Thus, ci poems were no longer lyrics just for singing and became a poetic form with new features while retaining their musical quality.
DETAILED>>The term generally refers to different types of writings. Its meanings have evolved over time. During the Western and Eastern Han dynasties, it generally referred to writing techniques, writing styles, and various types of articles. During the Wei, Jin, and the Southern and Northern dynasties, literary scholars began to identify different features in different types of writings. They distinguished, for the first time, literary writings from those interpreting classical works, and identified pure literature as literary writings and practical writings as technical writings. They subsequently distinguished, on the basis of form, literary works such as poems, fu (赋 descriptive prose interspersed with verse), song (颂 essays of extolment), and zan (赞 essay of commendation) from essays such as memorials, documents, and policy proposals submitted to the emperor by officials. They concluded that all writings with rhyme were literary writings and those without were technical writings. Xiao Yi（508-554）, Emperor Yuan of Liang, argued further that literary writings should not only have rhyme, but also express the author’s inner feelings and use elaborate rhetoric, while technical writings required only general writing skills. Today, this term mainly refers to writing techniques and language styles.
DETAILED>>This concept refers to writing ci poems in the same way as writing prose. This is manifest in the inclusion of arguments, narratives, allusions, and ancient syntax in ci poems, which deviates from the ci poems style of focusing on one’s emotions and mood and rhythmic harmony. Many of Su Shi’s (1037-1101) ci poems include titles and prefaces that highlight the intent of narrative and reasoning. Xin Qiji (1140-1207) wrote ci poems in the style of prose, making such poems more like prose. Some later scholars believed that the use of arguments and daily phrases in ci poems weakened the distinctive features of ci poems, while others felt that such a style broadened the scope of ci poems and enriched their value.
DETAILED>>To write is to record and release events, ideas, and feelings by means of written words. Shu (书) literally means “to write” and by extension “written works.”In the context of traditional Chinese culture, written works include all letters, notes, essays, calligraphic works, and books. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?), author active during the Southern Dynasties, frequently takes an etymological approach to examining the features and functions of literary styles. He interprets the general significance of writing by pointing out that according to the classics of previous generations, the characters 书 and 舒 were the same in meaning and pronunciation. As a verb, the character 舒 literally means “to stretch” and by extension “to present”or “to express.” As a noun, it takes on the metaphorical meaning of mental relaxation and comfort. Writing, as the character 书 denotes, assumes the roles of depicting things, recording feelings, conveying ideas, expressing emotions, relieving melancholy, and so on. Every person has a clear need for self-expression. The externalization of one’s internal state may be meaningful in cognition, practice, and aesthetics, while the realization of such meanings in cognition and practice will result in further aesthetic significance. Starting from the original meanings of the characters, Liu proceeds to affirm the essential significance of all literary styles and means of literary and artistic expressions, summarizes the basic functions of writing and literary and artistic creation, and in a broader sense emphasizes the aesthetic features of writing and the aesthetic need of humanity. His views mark the initial self-awareness of Chinese literary theory.
DETAILED>>This term originally referred to water, which, without a fixed shape, flows along the contours of objects or land. Song Dynasty writer Su Shi (1037-1101) used it to describe literary writing that was smooth and free like water, showing both the writer’s creative power and his adherence to the laws of nature and human society. This style of writing endeavors to achieve harmony between a motif and expressive techniques and to merge emotion, landscapes, events and moral lessons into an aesthetic whole. This term may have been influenced by the Daoist beliefs that “great virtue is like water” and that “water is the most exact equivalent of the way” as well as the Buddhist faith in following karma. It also gives expression to an artist’s personality, artistic attainment and capability.
If a piece of writing contradicts its author’s aspirations, why bother to write it at all? Here, yan (言) stands for either “speech” or “writing,” and zhi (志) refers to an author’s feelings and aspirations. The term originates from The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons by Liu Xie (465?-520? or 532?) of the Southern Dynasties. In Liu’s view, a writer should write to express his feelings and aspirations in the same way the authors of The Book of Songs did, bursting into songs and verses to voice their aspirations, sorrows and joys. Only such writings can be truly good. If what they put down on paper does not accord with what they think or feel, or if they themselves are soulless and can only show an affected sentimentality, their writings will naturally prove meaningless. This term criticises writers who are pompous and flashy to the neglect of true feelings
DETAILED>>This term refers to writings of argument and persuasion in ancient times. An essay of argument and persuasion was written to explore a theoretical issue in an in-depth way (lun) and make an argument about it to persuade people (shuo). According to Liu Xie (465?-520) of the Southern Dynasties, in writing an essay of argument and persuasion, one should not blindly copy theories developed by earlier scholars. Instead, one should have his independent views. One should draw his own persuasive conclusion on a theory or a subject by way of reasoning on the basis of numerous facts. He should find support in classics and other relevant sources, draw on previous scholarly reflection and explore an issue comprehensively and elaborately. The wording of such an essay, whose aim is to convince its readers, should be candid and sincere; such an essay should expound truths and uphold the cardinal principle of righteousness. It should increase its persuasive power and emotional appeal by using rhetorical devices and citing concrete examples. But such an essay should not be written to please the readers against one's own will, nor should it be designed to mislead them. One who writes an essay of argument and persuasion should, as Liu Xie pointed out, arrive at a truth through independent thinking, basing his judgment on his own views and conscience. He should be both incisive in wording and elaborate in argument. All these views have become essential criteria for judging the merit of essays and important rules governing their writing.
DETAILED>>The term refers to short lyrics and songs. The short lyrics originated from the drinking songs composed impromptu during the drinkers’ wager games at banquets in the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties. After the form of the music and the number of words of the lyrics were fixed, it became one of the genres to fill in the lyrics to set tunes. The lyrics were divided into ling (令), yin (引), jin (近), and man (慢), initially based on the rhythms of the music. Ling had the fewest rhythms. Later, the lyrics became separated from the music and could no longer be sung, so some scholars distinguished lyrics according to the number of words, calling short lyrics of about sixty words or less xiaoling lyrics. Sanqu (散曲), or lyric songs, of the Yuan Dynasty consist of xiaoling songs and cycles of songs. As songs, xiaoling are single songs, also called Ye’er (叶儿), which are equivalent to the basic unit of sanqu. Their tunes are mainly folk music from the north of the country during the Yuan Dynasty. However, some of the tunes may also derive from the ci tunes. As ci lyrics, xiaoling should be filled in strict accordance with the lyrical rules, and should be rhymed using either level or oblique tones.Xiaoling songs may insert words outside the melodic form, and the level tone, falling-rising tone, and falling tone can all be rhymed, which make the form more flexible. Gradually integrated with the aesthetic style of poetry, xiaoling lyrics displayed the style of the literati and scholars, paying attention to subtlety and implication. The content of xiaoling songs is more popular among the general public, and the language is mostly straightforward and lively. Be it a lyric or a song, xiaoling masterpieces are concise yet meaningful and rich in rhythm.
DETAILED>>The primary meaning of yin and yang is the orientation of things in relation to the sun, with yang meaning the sunny side and yin the shady side. There are two extended meanings: 1) two opposite kinds of qi (气) in nature; and 2) two basic contrary forces or qualities that coexist, thus the active, hot, upward, outward, bright, forward, and strong are yang, while the passive, cold, downward, inward, dark, backward, and weak are yin. The interaction between yin and yang, or yin qi and yang qi, determines the formation and existence of all things. The theory of yin and yang later became the basis for ancient Chinese to explain and understand the universe and everything in it, social order, and human relations. For example, heaven is yang and earth is yin, ruler is yang and subordinates are yin, husband is yang and wife is yin, noble is yang and ignoble is yin, leading is yang and following is yin.
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You can change a town, but you should not relocate the wells. Wells, where drinking water comes from, also refer to the social units of ancient China, where eight households shared one well. Humans cannot live without water, so places where they gather mostly have wells. Underground water determines the location of wells which cannot be changed easily. No matter how people’s houses were moved and rebuilt, the wells were immovable landmarks. The meaning implied here is that however much things are reshaped, the basic needs of people’s livelihood stay the same.
In Confucius’ （551-479 BC） time, how well one understood The Book of Songs was a sign of his social status and cultural attainment. If one did not study it, one would find it difficult to improve one’s ability to express oneself and to converse with people of high social status. Confucius’ elaboration on the relationship between studying The Book of Songs and social interaction actually expounds on the importance of literature in education.
DETAILED>>Youth means vitality, creativity, and unlimited possibilities as well as future and hope. Young people have great potential and they will outperform their predecessors. Therefore, elders should treat, reward, and promote the younger generation with respect and an open mind. This is the norm for governing intergenerational relations established by Confucius (551–479 BC), a norm that has been observed by later generations. The view young people should be highly regarded contains hopes for the new generation and respect for the future. It also demonstrates a firm belief and optimism in the continuous advance of humanity and its future.
DETAILED>>This term refers to the areas along the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River where ancient Huaxia (华夏) people or the Han people lived. Originally, the term Zhongguo (中国) meant both this region and its culture. The Huaxia people established their states along the Yellow River. Believing the areas were located in the center of the world, they called it Zhongguo (the Central Country, as against other areas around it). Later, the term was used to refer to the Central Plains in North China and the states founded in that area. Since modern times, Zhongguo has been used to refer to the entire territory and sovereignty of China.
DETAILED>>This term is an abbreviation of the compound word formed by Zhongguo (中国) and Huaxia (华夏). Here, hua (华) also means “flower” or “flowery,” which was used as an analogy for a splendid culture. The ancestors of the Huaxia people established their state in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, which they thought was the center (zhong) of the world and which had a flourishing culture (hua), so the state was called Zhonghua. This multi-ethnic state, with the Huaxia people as the predominant group of its population, later began its territorial expansions, and the places where it extended to became part of Zhonghua. In modern times, Zhonghua became a term denoting China, the Chinese people, and its culture.
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Zhuangzi (sometimes also referred to as Zhuang Zhou, 369?-286 BC) dreamed that he had become a butterfly. The story appears in “On Seeing Things as Equal” in the classic Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi dreamed that he had become a butterfly, but woke up to find he was still himself. In fact he was not sure whether he had dreamed of becoming a butterfly or a butterfly had dreamed of becoming him. Zhuangzi used this dream to remind people that there must be a relative difference between oneself and others, between dreaming and wakefulness, and between all other things. However, these boundaries were not absolute and could be broken. Things were in constant transformation and circulation, which he called “the transformation of things (wuhua 物化).”
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