TERMBASES
In its original meaning, dao (道) is the way or path taken by people. It has three extended meanings: 1) the general laws followed by things in different spheres, e.g. the natural order by which the sun, moon and stars move is called the way of heaven; the rules that govern human activities are the way of man; 2) the universal patterns followed by all things and beings; and 3) the original source or ontological existence of things, which transcends form and constitutes the basis for the birth and existence of all things, and for the activities of human beings. In their respective discussions of Dao, Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism imbue it with very different connotations. While benevolence, righteousness, social norms, and music education form the basic content of the Confucian Dao, the Buddhist and Daoist Dao tends to emphasize kong (空 emptiness) and wu (无 void).
The way of heaven refers to the basic rule governing the existence and changes of all things between heaven and earth （as opposed to “the way of man”）. Ancient Chinese interpreted “the way of heaven” in different ways. First, some believed that “the way of heaven,” especially the celestial phenomena relating to the movements of the sun, the moon, and the stars, foretell or dictate the success or failure of human affairs. In ancient times, designated officials predicted human affairs through observing celestial phenomena. Second, some believed that “the way of heaven” was the source or the basis of man’s moral conduct and of orderly human relations. One should comply with “the way of heaven,” in both words and deeds, so should human relations； and people should recognize and develop the moral nature bestowed upon by heaven so as to gain access to “the way of heaven.” Third, still others thought that there were no particular correlations between “the way of heaven” on the one hand, and moral conduct in the human world, human relations, as well as misfortune and fortune in human affairs on the other.
The way of man refers to the code of conduct that people must observe and also the relations and norms that keep human society on the right track. The way of man stands in contrast to the way of heaven. When Western culture was introduced to China in modern times, the term gained the meaning of respect and care for people’s lives, well-being, dignity, freedom, and individuality.
Confucianism advocates the political principle of governing the country through benevolence and winning people’s support through virtue as opposed to rule by force. Enlightened kings and emperors of ancient times governed the country primarily through benevolence and virtue. In the Warring States Period, Mencius （372？-289 BC） advocated this idea as a political concept: Only by governing the state with benevolence and righteousness, and by handling state-to-state relations on the basis of virtue, can a ruler win popular support and subsequently unify the country. The kingly way or benevolent governance epitomizes the Chinese people’s respect for “civilization” and their opposition to the use of force and tyranny.
The Middle Way manifests the principle of impartiality. It stands in contrast to partial behavior. Ancient Chinese believed that the existence and changes of all things in the universe obey a single basic law, which is shown through human action and conduct. This is the Middle Way. People should comply with the Middle Way in both speech and action. It can be achieved, Confucian scholars hold, by avoiding all excessive as well as inadequate words and actions, thus attaining impeccable morality. Buddhists advocate practicing the Middle Way in order to see things in their true light and break free of human suffering. Different schools of thought and religious sects vary in their understanding of the specific content of this concept.
The term has both broad and narrow meanings. Interpreted narrowly, it means various painting techniques. Interpreted broadly, it means the cultural values, personality, artistic style, and aesthetic aspiration embodied in a painting, suggesting a perfect fusion of Dao and skills. Dao determines the theme a painting conveys as well as the painting’s artistic principles and aesthetic style. A painting is a concrete image that illustrates Dao. It reflects the cultural principles followed by the painter as well as his personality, artistic style, and aesthetic aspiration. Therefore, paintings illuminate Dao, which in turn enhances the paintings. Prominent painters seek to access Dao through refining their skills and epitomizing Dao in artwork. The Dao of painting not only encompasses the Dao of nature, but also the Dao of social life, demonstrating the commitment to humanism inherent in the Chinese culture.
The motion of Dao is to transform into the opposite or return to the original state. This concept was proposed by Laozi. Laozi believed that Dao is the fundamental rule of motion and change of things. The essence of this rule is “return,” which has two different implications. One indicates the contrary and opposite, namely, a thing in motion may transform into its opposite. The other suggests returning, meaning that a thing eventually returns to its initial state. This concept embodies the profound understanding of Laozi and Daoist scholars about the rule governing the motion of things.
This term is a Confucian statement about the relationship between literature and ideas. Wen (文) refers to literary creations and works, while dao (道) refers to the ideas conveyed by literary works. Writers and philosophers in ancient China explicated these ideas as Confucian thought and ethics. Han Yu (768-824), leader of the mid-Tang-dynasty Classical Prose Movement advocating the prose style of the Qin and Han dynasties, and some others proposed that the purpose of writings should be in line with the classics of the ancient sages as well as promote them. Zhou Dunyi（1017-1073）, a neo-Confucian philosopher of the Song Dynasty, expounded the principle of literature serving as a vehicle of ideas. He concluded that literature was like a vehicle while ideas were like goods loaded on it, and that literature was nothing but a means and a vehicle to convey Confucian ideas. This theory was valuable because it stressed the social role of literature and emphasized that writers should know what they were writing about to ensure that their works conveyed correct ideas. However, it underestimated the aesthetic value of literature and later met opposition from thinkers and writers who emphasized the value of literature per se.
The term means to save and help all people through upholding truth and justice. Dao (道) here refers to truth and justice, and also to particular thought or doctrine. Ji (济) means relieving or helping people out of difficulties or sufferings. Tianxia (天下) refers to everything under heaven, and particularly all people. Therefore, this phrase contains two meanings. First, the value of any particular Dao depends on whether it serves the interests of the people. Second, people of virtue, and intellectuals in particular, should apply Dao they have learned to serve the people and use the ancient classics they have studied to meet present needs. Much like the idea of “studying ancient classics to meet present needs,” this notion of “supporting all people by upholding truth and justice,” represents the ultimate goal and ideal character of the traditional Chinese intellectuals in their pursuit of knowledge. It also embodies the compassion and moral standards of the traditional Chinese intellectuals as they pursue and uphold truth, care about the livelihood of the people, and take upon themselves the responsibility for the world.
The term, which first appeared in the Chinese classic writing Zhuangzi (Zhuangzi 369 ?-286 BC), means that one can easily see the existence of the Dao with no need to rely on verbal explanation or on logical analysis. Later it was used for literary creations and in the field of connoisseurship. The concept emphasizes the need for one to transcend audio and visual perceptions and logical analysis, and do away with any interfering thoughts or external objects in order to attain true appreciation of art. The concept highlights the importance of seeking intuitive insights unaffected by utilitarian considerations in literature and art.
When leading a poor life, one should still stick to moral principles. Confucius (551-479 BC) and Confucian scholars believe that it is not for fame and wealth that one should observe moral principles. Rather, such observance comes from one’s heart and represents his lifetime pursuit. So those who are guided by high moral standards will never seek wealth and fame at the expense of justice, and they can live up to such standards even when they live in poverty.
Mountains and rivers accord with Dao by way of their shapes. Zong Bing (375-443), a painter of the Southern Song Dynasty, in his “On the Creation of Landscape Paintings” expanded on a saying by Confucius （551-479 BC）– “A virtuous man loves mountains and a wise man loves water.” Zong held that mountains and rivers not only displayed their natural splendor to humanity, but also demonstrated the natural law of changes. Therefore, they were loved by men of virtue. This term shows the aesthetic view of people in the period of the Six Dynasties.
This is a famous statement made by Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC)on how beauty is relative. Originally it meant there was no difference between a beauty and an ugly person, because they both came from and reflected Dao. The character 厉 (lai) meant 癞 (lai, covered in scabs) in ancient Chinese. Whether a person is beautiful or ugly is but a subjective perspective in the mind of the beholder. Besides, beauty can turn into ugliness, and vice versa. Zhuangzi, from the perspective of the origin of all things, stressed that beauty and ugliness are both in accord with Dao and are inherently the same. This idea has encouraged later literary critics to look at all things, including literary works, from the perspective that opposite things complement each other.
The Chinese phrase dedao (得道) or “obtaining Dao” here refers to having “a just cause.” Since ancient times Chinese people have had a high esteem for justice and have thought of justice as a decisive factor determining success or failure in war and other enterprises. Only by upholding justice can one achieve internal unity and popular support, which are essential for the success of a war or a cause； otherwise, popular support is lost and the ruler or leader becomes too isolated and helpless to succeed. This is a specific expression of the Chinese notion of “governance based on virtue” and the spirit of “civilization.”
The term means what is formless or has no formal substance yet. It generally indicates the basis of physical things. The term “what is above form” comes from The Book of Changes and is used as the opposite of “what is under form.” “Form” indicates physical shape. “What is above form” refers to the state before a physical shape emerges, namely, formlessness. That which is formless is called “Dao.”
Qi (器) is a real object or a specific official, position, etc. A qi is something visible, or something one may describe in concrete terms. Every kind of qi has a specific form, function, or capability. Therefore there are clear distinctions between one qi and another. However, a common Dao exists in different kinds of qi. The existence of a qi is based on Dao. In terms of human affairs, an individual assumes a particular responsibility suited to his position； but he should go beyond his specific capabilities and strive to adhere to and obtain Dao.
The term means what has a form or what has a formal substance. It generally indicates existing and concrete things. The term “what is under form” comes from The Book of Changes. It is used as the opposite of “what is above form.”“Form” indicates physical shape. “What is under form” refers to the state after a physical shape has emerged, namely, physical existence. That which has a form is called “an object.” What is under form takes what is above form as the basis of its existence.
The term has three meanings. First, it indicates the original essence of all things. It is another name for dao (way). It is also referred to as taiyi (the supreme one). Second, it refers to the state of chaos before the separation of heaven and earth. The one was divided and transformed into heaven and earth. All things in heaven and on earth were produced from this Chaotic entity. Third, it indicates the unity of things, as opposed to “many” or “two.” The idea is to emphasize the unity among things which are different or opposite.
Qi (vital force) has a material existence independent of subjective consciousness and is the basic element of all physical beings. It is also the basis for the birth and existence of life and spirit. In addition, some thinkers have given a moral attribute to qi. Qi is in constant motion and change, and has no specific shape. Its concentration gives birth to a thing and its evaporation signals the end of that thing. Qi permeates all physical beings and their surroundings. Qi, as a philosophical concept, is different from what is commonly understood by the word qi (气), namely, air. Although things in liquid or solid form are different from things in air form, from the perspective of the ancient Chinese philosophy, their formation and existence are the results of the concentration of qi.
The original meaning of li (理) was the texture of jade; later it was extended to contain three meanings: 1) the physical forms or proprieties of things, such as length, size, shape, tensile strength, weight, and color; 2) the universal laws followed by all things and beings; and 3) the original source or ontological existence of things. The last two meanings are similar to those of Dao. Scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties were particularly interested in describing and explaining the philosophy known as li (理), and considered it as the highest realm, giving rise to the School of Principle which dominated academic thought in the period from the Song to the Ming dynasties.
The term means the primal source from which all things originate, both animate and inanimate, including human beings. Yuan (元) manifests itself in different forms. In the Han Dynasty, it was considered a kind of primal physical material that both produced and made up the myriad things of the world. The Book of Changes divides yuan into two primal sources: the heavenly source which gives birth to the sun, moon, and stars, and the earthly source which creates all other things on earth. In The Spring and Autumn Annals, the term refers to the first year in its chronologies, symbolizing the start of a new historical period, and serving as the manifestation in the human world of the natural process in which things begin, end, and are replaced.
Sincerity is among the core concepts of the Confucian school of thought. Basically, it means truthfulness without deceit. Confucians believed that sincerity is the essence of the “way of heaven” or “principles of heaven,” a basis on which everything else is built. At the same time, sincerity is also the root and foundation of morality. All moral deeds must be conducted on the basis of sincerity from the bottom of the heart. Otherwise, they are nothing but pretensions. The Doctrine of the Mean maintains, “Nothing can be achieved without sincerity.” Sages are sincere by nature. Therefore, their words and deeds are naturally consistent with the “way of heaven” and the “principles of heaven.” Junzi (a man of virtue) upholds sincerity as his goal for moral attainment and an approach to achieving the “way of heaven” and the “principles of heaven.”
The term has three definitions. First, it describes two different dimensions of things: One is with form and the other without form. Second, it refers to two different stages or states of a thing during its generation, existence, and demise. You (有) refers to the state of a thing after it has come into being and before it dies out; wu (无) refers to the state of a thing before its birth and after its death. Third, you refers to any tangible or identifiable thing or the sum total of such things; wu refers to the original source or ontological existence, which is intangible and unidentifiable, and transcends all specific objects. With regard to the third definition, some philosophers consider wu to be the original source or ontological existence of the world, and you comes from wu; others believe that you is fundamentally significant, and dispute the notion that you owes its existence to wu. Despite their differences, you and wu are mutually dependent.
The term has two meanings. First, it refers to the state of one whole mass that existed before the universe took shape, often said to exist before qi (vital force) emerged. The multitude of organisms on earth all emanated from this state. Second, it refers to Chaos, king of the Central Region in a fable in Zhuangzi. According to the fable, Chaos had no eyes, nose, mouth or ears. Shu, king of the South Sea, and Hu, king of the North Sea, drilled seven apertures into Chaos and killed him. Zhuangzi （369？-286 BC）used this story to show the state of chaos of the world in which there is neither knowledge or wisdom, nor distinction between good and evil.
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