TERMBASES
This term refers to
literary descriptions of characters which are accurate both in form and in
spirit. Chuanshen (传神), to “convey the spirit,” is to fully express the
spiritual world within the character, so that he comes to life; xiezhao (写照), to “capture the person,” is to create a vivid
physical depiction of him. These expressions were originally used in
discussions of art but were later introduced into literature. They represent an
artistic state which artists and writers try to achieve as they create images
of people as well as all artistic images.
The term has four meanings. First, it indicates a deity in a personified sense, possessing superhuman capabilities. Natural things, such as heaven and earth, mountains and rivers, sun and moon, and stars, have their deity. A human soul may also become a deity after death. Second, it indicates the human spirit and mind. Daoism considers “spirit” to be the dominating factor in human life. Therefore, maintaining and refining the spirit is most important to prolong life. Third, it indicates the subtle and unfathomable changing of all things as well as heaven and earth occurring under the interaction of yin and yang. In this sense the term is often used together with hua (化 change), the combination being called “divine change.” Fourth, it indicates a marvelous and unfathomable realm in life attained by a person.
The term refers to vim and vigor found in a great work of art. It first emerged among comments on famed persons in the Wei and Jin period. Later, it was brought into the field of artistic criticism. The Tang Dynasty’s theory on calligraphy adopted the term to describe the artistic features of a calligraphic work. In his essay titled “Subsequent Commentaries on Calligraphy,” Jiang Kui (1155?-1209) of the Song Dynasty further argued, on the basis of the concept of “vim and vigor,” that the merit of a calligraphic work is jointly determined by the calligrapher’s moral character, origin of his style, skill, innovation and the kind of brush and paper he uses. The term gained its popularity when Ming Dynasty’s Mao Kun (1512-1601) used it in his critical essays. He praised Records of the Historian as its classic example and spoke highly of Ouyang Xiu’s (1007-1072) essays for their vim and vigor. His criterion was to see whether a smooth flow of narration was ensured and complicated nuances of feeling admirably expressed in an essay.
This term refers to the subtle elegance of literary and artistic works. It was originally used to depict a person’s mien and manner. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, the propriety inherent in a person was valued, whereas during the previous Han Dynasty, a person’s external appearance was stressed. Later on, this concept was incorporated into the theory of calligraphy and painting to refer to the elegant subtlety of a work. In the Ming Dynasty, the concept was extended to the theory of poetry, and elegant subtlety became a requirement for composing poetry. Later, Wang Shizhen（1634—1711） of the Qing Dynasty further developed the theory of elegant subtlety. In compiling The Elegant Subtlety of the Tang Poetry, he elaborated on his aesthetic views. In his writings on poetry theory, Wang Shizhen championed these views and created his own unique poetical aesthetics, enriching the theory of elegant subtlety, and making it a major school of the Qing-dynasty poetics.
Freehand brushwork is one of the traditional methods of brushwork expression in Chinese painting. Using abbreviated and willful brushwork, the artist suggests graphically the meaning and character of the object and its shape. The chief aim is to give rein to the artist’s subjective state and mood. It stresses flexibility in brushwork, unrestrained by unimportant details and rejecting naturalistic effects (in contrast with meticulous painting). This style of painting, while seemingly coarse and whimsical, is in fact highly conscious of, and strictly consistent with, standards of artistic creation. Besides demanding close observation and experience of natural objects prior to painting, such as that the various forms within the picture will be laid out appropriately, it also demands solid technical proficiency in order that the artistic intent be formed in imagination before taking shape in painting. Freehand brushwork is divided into greater freehand and lesser freehand, with the former often employing the ink-splashing technique. It had a significant influence on the production of operas and the development of acting techniques in later ages. The freehand style in Chinese-style opera is shown through consciously artificial, stylized motions, accompanied by singing and dancing, to present images artistically on the stage.
Have a Complete Image of the Bamboo Before Drawing It / Have a Fully Formed Picture in the Mind’ Eye
This term means to have an image of the art in one’s mind prior to artistic creation. It describes the use of mental imagery in the course of artistic creation, and also sets a requirement for both artistic creation and for design in craftsmanship. For the creator of an artwork, concepts, feelings, intentions and objects should be integrated in the mind to form an aesthetic image. After this artistic conceptualization is completed, technique is used in conjunction with physical materials to form a tangible work. For a craft designer, the emphasis would be more on rational thinking, and revisions would be permissible. Having a fully formed picture in advance is an ideal state.
When describing something, literary writing should be able to go beyond external appearance to capture the essence so as to reflect a high degree of reality. Zhuangzi （369?-286BC）considered that the essence of life lies in the inner spirit rather than the physical form. One should forget one’s physical existence and give full free rein to the spirit. The late Tang poet Sikong Tu (837-908) adopted this view and believed that poetic description should likewise focus on essence rather than form. This concept of poetic creation and critique was later applied in calligraphy and painting as well.
This term means a poet uses the techniques of analogy and stimulation to depict the form and the external appearance of things. He takes in internal connotations and the principles of things, thus linking originally different things and combining them. Nirong (拟容comparing appearances) attaches importance to specific forms for bixing (比兴 analogy and stimulation). While quxin (取心 grasping the essence) aims to get at the spirit and the essence of things, it therefore attaches importance to internal connotations and to the principles contained in the form of things. The combined meaning is that by giving expression to the form of things with a certain meaning, one may imply and express his thoughts and feelings. This notion appeared in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. It developed from niwu lixiang (拟物立象 create images through object imitation) in The Book of Changes. Liu Xie (465?-520) first used this term, mainly to explain that analogy and stimulation are inter-connected but are different: Analogy here means “comparing appearances.” Staying true to the principle of things is most important, and anything far-fetched should be avoided. Stimulation means “grasping the essence,” sensing the abstruse and being connected with the meaning.
This refers to the process in which an artist creates his unique artistic representations of concrete objects, found in the natural world and social life, by mimicking, refining, and synthesizing their perceptual images. This concept for artistic creation comes from The Book of Changes, which uses images of hexagrams to symbolize everything in nature and their rules of change. The Book of Changes has inspired literature and art to make use of concrete artistic images to interpret and describe nature and human beings themselves. This mode of thinking has exerted a far-reaching influence on literary and artistic theories in ancient China, nurturing the birth of the theory of imagery.
This concept means a painter should be good at association in thinking in artistic conception and creation. He should give full rein to his imagination and connect and reconstruct a variety of source images and materials so as to create a great painting in both image and spirit. “Association in thinking” stresses imagination, selection, connection and conception. While the subject matter and source materials come from reality, the painting is by no means a replica of it. “Association in thinking” makes it possible for a painter to reconstruct his thoughts and emotions in the image of his work. “Inspirational creation” stresses the aesthetic effects of a good painting that derives from “association in thinking.” A good painting should not only create a good image, but also enable the viewer to appreciate the underlying message. Such a painting is one of inspirational creation. “Association in thinking” and “inspirational creation” together constitute an inseparable process of artistic creation. This concept is the earliest definition of artistic conception and aesthetic appreciation in China; it later became an important principle underlying the theory on Chinese painting.
This term refers to the act of depicting the outward features of an object to convey its innate character in literary writing. It stresses the need not only to reproduce in words whatever appears before one’s eyes but also to capture it with one’s soul, thus achieving a close communion with the object depicted. The point is to bring out the hidden impact and spirit of things, or to express a profound feeling toward them. Only thus can an excellent work of art be produced.
Painters depict physical appearances to reveal the essence. Gu Kaizhi(345?-409), a painter of the Eastern Jin dynasty, lays great emphasis on the correspondence between the essence and physical forms: He depicts the appearance of objects in great detail, which embodies their spiritual disposition. He believes this is the highest requirement of painting. He urges painters to capture those outward features that best reveal the spiritual attributes of the objects depicted. This view has exerted a great influence on later artistic endeavors.
According to this precept, in pursuing artistic creation, one needs to draw inspiration from all things in nature and his innermost thoughts. Zaohua (造化) means nature. Xinyuan (心源) is a Buddhist term, meaning that the true awakening of one’s mind is the root of all Buddhist teaching. This view, originally described by the Tang Dynasty painter Zhang Zao, was quoted later by the Tang Dynasty author Zhang Yanyuan in his Famous Paintings Through History. It originally was a principle governing the painting of landscapes. It aimed to achieve both verisimilitude and ephemeralness and convey the subtle nuances of mountains, rivers, lakes, trees, and rocks in real life by carefully observing their true grains, shapes, and colors. The painter was encouraged to experience their beauty with his heart and capture it in a painting. “Nature” and “inspiration from within” are complementary rather than confrontational – they have a relationship of unity rather than opposition. Tang Dynasty essays about poetry, too, referred to the “soul” and “inspiration from within.” Descriptions of poetry writing were not very different from Zhang Zao’s interpretation of the process of painting. Classical Chinese prose and poetry are similar to painting in that they stress the importance of molding different physical images into an aesthetic whole. They value the charm of a literary work, fusing outer nature and inner thought.
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