This term refers both to the theories of the diverse group of scholars from the late Spring and Autumn Period to the early Western Han Dynasty, as well as the study of these theories. During those years, scholars engaged in free and in-depth reflection on the collapse of the social order and societal values and came up with diverse theoretical propo…

To act based on morality and justice, that is, to manage major political and military matters according to the principles of morality and justice. In ancient Chinese political discourse, it was never right to suggest that power could be exercised arbitrarily. On the contrary, it was expected that there should be a legitimate basis for the creation …

This term means to be bright without being dazzling. Laozi used the term to describe the influence of those in power on ordinary people. High status, authority and resources enable them to have a great impact on people’s lives, just like a bright light that cannot be avoided. However, Laozi also believed that no person in power should impose his wi…

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